Buddhist Meditation Monasteries of Ancient Sri Lanka

Description

Ritigala Archaeological Site
N8 7 1.164 E80 39 57.5604

Manakanda Archaeological Site
N8 7 15.4308 E80 32 26.25

Arankale Archaeological Site
N7 38 37.5612 E80 25 1.524

Maligatenna Archaeological Site
N7 45 42.7788 E80 25 27.5736

The proposed property, Buddhist Meditation Monasteries of Ancient Sri Lanka, consists of four serial component parts, namely Ritigala, Manakanda, Arankele, and Maligatenna, which are archaeological sites belonging to the 5th to 10th centuries AD. Already protected as national archaeological reserves, they are located in mountainous forest settings and the sites include remains that demonstrate distinct planning principles. The dominant building type in each monastic complex is known as a padhanaghara, or meditation house, which served the meditative life of the Buddhist Monks of the period. Padhanagharas are randomly located throughout a large geographical area but are physically linked to one another by a network of paved pathways. Each monastic complex also demonstrates another building type known as the cankamanaghara or the walking meditation paths (located individually or integrated into the padhanagharas) that served the meditation practices. In addition, there are remains of a number of service buildings that facilitated a healthy life for the resident monks, such as the janthaghara (bath house). Specially created massive reservoirs provided a continuous supply of water for the residents, used for ritual bathing purposes.

These forest monasteries are highly distinct in their location, design, and features, which are devoid of many of the traditional Buddhist monuments and features, such as stupas, image houses, and Bodhi tree shrines. There are nearly 20 such monastic complexes throughout the country, but for the nomination, only four monasteries have been selected. They are in Ritigala, Manakanda, Arankele, and Maligatenna.

Justification de la Valeur Universelle Exceptionnelle

Buddhism arrived in Sri Lanka from India in the 3rd century BC. Several types of Buddhist monasteries subsequently evolved in response to the monastic requirements of the Buddhist monks and to fulfil the spiritual and practical needs of the devotees. Some of the outstanding examples of these monasteries are already inscribed on the World Heritage List, as component parts of the Sacred City of Anuradhapura, the Ancient City of Polonnaruwa, and Rangiri Dambulla Cave Temple. The most dominant building typology in these places, primarily in Anuradhapura and Polonnaruwa, is that of the royal monastery. When these sites functioned as capital cities (evolving from the 6th century BC to the 12th century AD) the royal monasteries were an integral part of the cities. They are exceptionally large complexes constructed according to distinct planning principles and comprise of ritual buildings – stupas, image houses, Bodhi tree shrines, as well as residential and other service buildings. A blueprint was also developed and used throughout the country for numerous other complexes, which were relatively smaller in scale but had a distinct layout dominated by the same types of ritual buildings. They are known as pabbatha vihara. All the monasteries provided shelter for resident monks and were places of worship and ritual practices for the lay people. In addition, they were also centers of learning and education, providing advice also to the rulers.

Rangiri Dambulla Cave Temple represents one of the earliest monastic traditions, of monks living in natural caves in forest locations. The practice of Buddhist monks using caves as residences originated in the 3rd century BC, when Buddhism arrived in Sri Lanka, and established a type of monastery that became popular and widespread. There are over 4,000 such caves recorded throughout the country, their antiquity attested by inscriptions. The exclusive activity of the monks resident in these settlements was meditation, a method used achieve the purification and cleansing of the mind that is in line with the one of the core teachings of the Buddha. The practice of occupying caves for meditative purposes lasted for some 500 years but ceased to exist after the 2nd century AD. Some of the caves were abandoned but others were converted into large complexes that integrated ritual buildings and provided access to the public. These cave sites thus evolved into a third distinct type of monasteries. Rangiri Dambulla Cave Temple is one such typology.

The evolution of the royal monasteries and the cave temples meant that, over time, the use of these spaces for exclusive meditation declined. They could no longer provide the environment that was required by certain groups of monks to practice meditation, since the ideal conditions for meditation required physical and psychological distance from the materialistic world. The popularity of meditation, however, increased and there was a greater demand for devotion to meditative life, especially in the 5th and 10th centuries. A return to the abandoned cave settlements was one option for meeting this need, but given the popularity of the philosophy of a life devoted exclusively to meditation, the rulers of the period instigated the creation of yet another monastic type, that of the meditation monasteries.

The meditation monasteries represent an exclusive Buddhist monastic typology with their unique planning and architecture and forest location. They are not found anywhere else in the world. They have been planned and built to facilitate the practices of the Buddhist monks who dedicated their lives exclusively to meditation, and the designs of the monasteries demonstrate a high level of human creativity. These monasteries do not contain ritual buildings such as a stupa, image houses, and Bodhidhara, instead they consist of a unique residential building type known as the padhanaghara, or meditation house, and several service buildings. The padhanaghara is distinctive for its two raised platforms, one with a superstructure and one open to the sky. The platform with the superstructure could have supported a roof that provided shelter for up to six monks, depending on its size. This space was used for living and meditation, while the open platform could be used for different types of meditation, individual or collective. These sites were secured by a boundary wall to ensure the safety of wildlife and an uninterrupted meditative life. Some of them had a cankamanghara, or meditation walk, incorporated into the boundary. An attached toilet is generally the only other building found to be integrated. Some of these meditation monasteries evolved as individual monastic complexes themselves, while others are found located in multiple numbers in larger monastic complexes, randomly located throughout the complex but linking to a central path, which led to common service areas and the residence of the chief monk. Strong foundations made of stone and still in good state of preservation demonstrate the skills achieved in stone masonry of the period.

By looking at these qualities and other conditions, meditation monasteries are strong candidates for justifying their Outstanding Universal Value, hence proposing to be included in the Tentative List. There are over 20 meditation monastic remains all over the country, but it is proposed to include four sites as components of a serial nomination.

Criterion (iii): Meditation monasteries bear exceptional testimony to a cultural tradition of Buddhist monks, whose way of life, in accordance with core Buddhist teachings, centred around meditation, living in isolation in a forest location that was occupied by a specially built padhanaghara (meditation house). Initially, monks inhabited the natural caves in the forest, which were conducive to meditative life, but these were abandoned with the development of urban and rural monasteries. which were dominated by ritual buildings such as stupas and image houses. These monasteries became educational and social institutions in addition to being religious places. However, the tradition of monks returning to the forest for a dedicated meditative life has remained in practice up to the present day. The peak of this tradition is evidenced by the exceptional planning and architectural traditions seen in the remains of meditation monasteries dating to the 5th and 10th centuries, as well as in literary sources.

Criterion (iv): The practice of purifying or cleansing the mind is at the core of Buddhist teaching and is to be achieved through meditation. The human creation of meditation monasteries had the objective of facilitating such a practice. These monasteries present an outstanding example of a planned architectural ensemble exclusively located in the forest and with a dominant architectural feature known as padhanaghara (meditation house) and several service buildings, including cankamanaghara and (meditative walks), service buildings such as exquisitely carved toilets and footpaths. This type of settlement, designed to aid meditative life, illustrates a significant stage in human history. Such monastic and building types are not found anywhere else in the geopolitical region dominated by the Theravada Buddhist tradition. The monastic layout and the buildings were created in line with Buddhist literature.

Criterion (v): Meditation monasteries, as a building typology, are an outstanding example of a traditional Buddhist monk's settlement. Such a settlement is representative of a culture nurtured by Buddhist principles, seeking to achieve the highest level of human interaction with the environment – and thus the goals of meditation – by creating a specific environment conducive to the purpose. In all Buddhist literature, a forest or other type of natural environment is considered ideal for meditative life. Natural cave sites were utilized initially. Ancient rulers, however, subsequently sought creative architectural solutions to enable Buddhist monks' meditative lives in the forest. They created an atmosphere conducive to meditation by embracing aspects of the natural environment through sophisticated and thoughtful planning and architectural design in the creation of the padhanaghara. These monasteries are exceptional examples of nature–culture interdependency. 

Déclarations d’authenticité et/ou d’intégrité

Archaeological ruins of all Buddhist monasteries are well documented and have been studied with a number of excavations. The earliest excavations and recording were carried out in 1912–14 by Edward Russell Ayrton, the Egyptologist who excavated the Valley of Queens but later became the Head of Archaeology in Sri Lanka. The remains of the monastic complexes are sufficient to demonstrate clearly their authentic layout and form as well the use of local granite, the main building material, which was carved to create the padhanagharas and other buildings, including pathways and ponds. Although the superstructure is missing from all the buildings, Buddhist literature helps us re-create and understand its function and nature.

The demarcation and legal declarations and size of the collective remains of the four monastic complexes that are proposed as a serial property constitute all elements required to demonstrate Outstanding Universal Value. They are all located in forest environments, which are governed by strong legislation; there are hardly any threats to the survival of these ruins.  

Comparaison avec d’autres biens similaires

Meditation monasteries can be compared with the Buddhist monasteries inscribed in the World Heritage List in countries in which the Theravada (the most orthodox) school of Buddhism has a long history, not only in Sri Lanka, but also in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Thailand, Myanmar and Lao PDR.

Sri Lanka

Sacred City of Anuradhapura
The sacred city of Anuradhapura has several monastic complexes (Maha viharas: Maha Vihara, Abhayagiri and Jatavana etc.) that evolved from the 3rd century BC. Ritual buildings dominate these structures, and the layout is made in such a way as to function as a centre of education and social activities for a large number of monks and to allow masses to congregate.

Western Monasteries in the sacred city of Anuradhapura is a cluster of padhanagharas that evolved into self-contained individual monasteries, brought closer to the main centre of governance, Anuradhapura, due to the popularity of the meditative monks among rulers, who would consult them regularly (in addition to monks living in Maha viharas). This cluster was not included in the nomination but was included in the property description since the monasteries demonstrate the most advanced example of the typology of meditation monasteries and architecture.
The criteria used are ii, iii, and vi. Criterion iii is applicable as it demonstrates particular testimony to the Buddhist monastic tradition, but the layout and the building types are different from those found in meditation monasteries.

Ancient City of Polonnaruwa
The World Heritage Site of the Ancient City of Polonnaruwa also has several monastic complexes, as in Anuradhapura. Alahan parivena in Polonnaruwa, which is one of the main components, is one of the complexes; its layout and architecture are similar to the Maha viharas of Anuradhapura and comprise ritual buildings. The criteria used are i, iii, and vi. The plan and the layout of Polonnaruwa bear no similarity to the meditation monasteries or their architecture.

Ancient Ariyakara Viharaya in the Rajagala Archaeological Reserve (proposed criteria ii, iii, vi) in the Tentative List.
There are references to meditation aspects, mostly due to the existence of numerous caves used by the Buddhist monks in the early stages of the site’s occupation. However, this site presents a classic example of a converted monastic type, to which many ritual buildings have been added and, as a consequence, its character as a complex of forest hermitages used exclusively for meditation has since been lost. Without a doubt, these caves would have been used by the monks for meditation, but they are incomparable to meditation monasteries in terms of demonstrating creativity in design, layout and architecture. Criterion iv is not proposed.

International

Ajanta Caves, India
Ajanta Caves may well have been used for meditation purposes in the same way as the natural caves in Sri Lanka at the same period (3rd century BC–2nd century AD). However, Ajanta gradually became converted to developed monastic life with the introduction of ritual elements such as stupas and painted surfaces. Criteria used have been i, ii, iii, vi. It is indeed a testimony to the Buddhist monastic tradition as reflected in criterion iii. Still, the ensemble and the architecture of meditation monasteries are distinct from Ajanta Caves.

Buddhist Monuments at Sanchi, India
This is one of the earliest monastic complexes that reflects interchanges within and outside India, but the most dominant architecture is the stupa, which meditation monasteries have deliberately avoided, and criterion iv is used specifically to highlight the typology of this building. The use of criterion iii is justifiable as it reflects a particular stage of Buddhist monastic tradition, but not one necessarily devoted to meditation as is found at the meditation monasteries. Criteria used are i, ii, iii, iv, vi.

Mahabodhi Temple Complex at Bodh Gaya, India
The Mahabodhi Temple Complex is dominated by the Bodhi tree, which later became one of the most important religious features in monasteries developed in the region. It is believed that under this tree the lord Buddha attained enlightenment in the 6th century BC. A temple was established here as an important place of pilgrimage by Emperor Asoka in the 3rd century BC. The criteria used are i, ii, iii, iv, and vi. This site reflects the tradition of Buddhist monasticism and undoubtedly would have been used by the pilgrims for meditation as of today for generations, but the use of criterion iv is to manifest the existing main edifice, which was built of brick in the 5th and 6th centuries AD. The architecture of the meditation monasteries is distinct from that demonstrated at the monastery in Bodh Gaya.

Archaeological Site of Nalanda Mahavihara at Nalanda, Bihar, India
The Nalanda Mahavihara site in India reflects monastic and scholastic institutions such as those in Anuradhapura. It consists of architectural elements of stupas, shrines, and residential buildings for the monks. Some of the residential buildings would have been used for meditation purposes, and there may also have been other structures, such as meditation halls not hitherto identified. Criterion iv is used to demonstrate developed planning, architectural, and artistic principles that were adopted later by many similar institutions in the Indian Subcontinent, South Asia and Southeast Asia. But none of these planning and architectural approaches have influenced meditation monasteries. .

Bagan, Myanmar
Bagan is an exceptional Buddhist monastic complex dominated by the most prominent ritual buildings, like stupas and image houses, which are deliberately avoided by the meditation monasteries. The criteria used are iii, iv, vi. The use of criterion iv is to manifest an ‘extraordinary ensemble of Buddhist monumental architecture, reflecting the strength of religious devotion of an early major Buddhist empire.’ The ensemble and the building types of meditation monasteries, however, are devoid of monumental architecture, in keeping with the simplicity of the meditation practice and lifestyle.

Buddhist Ruins of Takht-i-Bahi and Neighbouring City Remains at Sahr-i-Bahlol, Pakistan
The Buddhist monastic complex of Takht-i-Bahi (Throne of Origins) in Pakistan, built at a time when Buddhism flourished in the region in the 1st century BC, reflects the evolution of the monastic traditions in its demonstration of specific types of architecture. Only criterion iv is used, reflecting the setting, architectural form, design, and construction techniques that are the most characteristic examples of the development of monastic and urban communities in the Gandharan region between the 1st to 7th centuries AD. Some of the cells within the complex may well have been used meditation by the Buddhist monks but these spaces are distinctly different from meditation monasteries.

Historic City of Ayutthaya & The Historic Town of Sukhothai and Associated Historic Towns, Thailand
Like many in the region, Ayutthaya and Sukhothai are cities where Buddhist monasteries are integral components of the built environment. The historic city of Ayutthaya is nominated under criterion iii, which reflects the development of Thai art and architecture. Buddhist monasteries here constitute conventional ritual buildings such as stupas and image houses. The planning and architecture of Buddhist monasteries are distinct and different from those of monasteries in Ayutthaya. Criterion iv is not applied. The Historic Town of Sukhothai and Associated Historic Towns also have Buddhist monasteries as component parts of the property. They have applied criteria i and iii. Monastic remains here are similar to those in Ayutthaya. Planning and architectural typology has no similarity to those in meditation monasteries. Here, too, criterion iv is not applied.

Town of Luang Prabang, Lao People's Democratic Republic
Luang Prabang is a fusion of traditional religious and European colonial architecture. Criteria used are ii, iv, v. Criterion iv and v are applied to the entire city and not just to Buddhist monasteries. Here, Buddhist monasteries constitute traditional ritual buildings, which are not found in meditation monasteries.  

All the comparable sites listed above manifest Buddhist monastic traditions, which have disappeared in some places and continue in others. Therefore, the use of criterion iii in all of them is justifiable. The use of criterion iii for meditation monasteries demonstrates a different type of meditation practice in monastic life. Except for Ajanta Caves, all properties have used criterion iv to demonstrate outstanding typology of an ensemble of architecture, including planning and setting. All of these, however, are dominated by the ritual buildings that developed gradually and became key features that defined those Buddhist monasteries in their diverse typologies. The planning and setting of the ensemble of meditation monasteries and the architecture of meditation houses are distinct compared to all the Buddhist monsters listed in Sri Lanka and the broader geo-political region. Criteria v is used only in the meditation monasteries (in addition to Luang Prabang but in a different context). It can therefore be considered an outstanding example of interaction between humans and nature – directly engaging with the natural environment for the purpose of achieving one of the main objectives of Buddhist tradition which is to purify and cleanse the mind by way of meditation. The overall comparative study demonstrates the distinct planning and architecture manifest in meditation monasteries that justify the Outstanding Universal Value.