The World Heritage and Renewable Energy – Guidance on Wind and Solar Energy Projects in a World Heritage Context provides practical advice for States Parties, site managers, planners, developers and other actors on how to align the protection of World Heritage properties with renewable energy development, particularly wind and solar energy projects. As countries transition to low-carbon energy systems, it is essential to ensure that wind and solar energy projects are planned and implemented in ways that safeguard the Outstanding Universal Value of World Heritage sites. Impact assessment is a critical tool in this process – it enables the early identification of potential impacts, promotes informed decision-making and helps to balance climate goals with heritage conservation obligations.
This introduction addresses the need for the global transition from non-renewable energy to renewable energy sources and how this process may lead to consequences for World Heritage.
The core of this Guidance comprises four main parts.
Understanding World Heritage explains the core concepts of the World Heritage Convention (1972), primarily for a non-expert audience.
Understanding Renewable Energy provides essential information related to renewable energy infrastructure and electrical transmission, especially for heritage experts and stakeholders.
Protecting World Heritage outlines the most important protection and management tools, which may guarantee the long-term preservation of World Heritage properties for future generations, and describes possible proactive actions for site managers and stakeholders.
Impact Assessment describes the principles and considerations for conducting impact assessments in a World Heritage context.
Impact assessment aims to ensure that the potential negative and positive impacts of a planned or proposed renewable energy project are well understood, both by the developers throughout the planning process and by the decision-makers in the permitting process, and can be mitigated or enhanced, or alternatives identified. This is also a requirement under the World Heritage Convention. The impact assessment process should be used to understand the potential impact of a renewable energy project before any commitments are made, ensuring also that its steps and results are used to improve the planning and design of renewable energy projects and other developments.
The Guidance is supplemented by a collection of Notes and Case Studies (provided by States Parties to the Convention). Furthermore, the Resources provide information on the sources that formed the basis for developing this Guidance and further literature, categorized by the main topics covered in this Guidance.
For technical terms used in this Guidance, please consult UNESCO’s World Heritage Glossary, the World Heritage Climate Change Glossary and the Glossary of the Guidance and Toolkit for Impact Assessments in a World Heritage Context .
Reading guide
This Guidance contains information that is of varying interest to different World Heritage and renewable energy stakeholders. Therefore, this Reading guide is provided to direct readers to the sections that might be of most interest to them. It is suggested that readers familiarize themselves with the general content of each section so that their understanding of the subject matter can inform their reading of other sections.
Acknowledgements
Originally published as Guidance for Wind Energy Projects in a World Heritage Context, in cooperation with the European Wind Energy Association (WindEurope) and with the support of the Kingdom of the Netherlands and the Autonomous Region of Madeira (Portugal), this expanded edition now also addresses solar energy projects. It is the result of close collaboration, consultation, and analysis between UNESCO, ICCROM, ICOMOS, IUCN, the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), and SolarPower Europe.
This work has been made possible through the generous support of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, the Government of Wallonia (Belgium), and the Swiss Confederation. The development of the content has greatly benefited from the contributions of the following independent experts: Leon Bennun, Nicholas Clarke, Sara Court, and Nicole Franceschini. The Guidance includes case studies contributed by several States Parties from around the world, with the opportunity remaining open for further contributions in the future.
Purpose and scope
Renewable energy facilities and their associated infrastructure are recognized as a factor that affects World Heritage properties globally. The purpose of this Guidance is to support States Parties in protecting their World Heritage properties while pursuing their energy transition to renewable sources. Within the wide array of renewable energy sources, this Guidance focuses on wind and solar energy projects, although many aspects of planning may, of course, be applied also to the development of other renewable energy sources. This Guidance also addresses transmission infrastructure development as an essential part of the transition away from fossil fuels to a renewable electricity-based energy system. This Guidance does not yet address storage technologies such as battery or pump storage installations.
As the number of renewable energy project proposals will likely continue to increase in the coming years, this Guidance is targeted at those engaged in renewable energy policymaking, planning and development, as well as stakeholders involved in the protection of World Heritage properties, especially site managers and national authorities, and decision-makers in the project application process. This Guidance thus informs and guides all stakeholders involved and seeks to encourage dialogue and communication, to enhance mutual understanding and to reach improved and constructive cooperation, which will result in renewable energy projects that are developed in a way that is compatible with World Heritage.
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Context of this Guidance
The protection and management of World Heritage properties are guided by the World Heritage Convention (1972) and the Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World Heritage Convention, as well as by national legal frameworks. These properties are designated for their importance to humanity and, at times, certain types of development might not be appropriate or would need to be carefully designed to avoid negative impacts on Outstanding Universal Value of World Heritage properties. The endeavour to develop guidance focusing on renewable energy projects started from the understanding that appropriate guidance could help to avoid and solve problems related to conflicting interests stemming from the inevitable need to shift energy production to renewable sources, allowing for the benefits that this can bring through sustainable development, and protect the Outstanding Universal Value of cultural and natural World Heritage properties.
Climate Change as a defining topic of our time
Anthropogenic (human-induced) climate change is an urgent global challenge, the effects of which are increasingly felt by communities and at heritage places all around the world. While the threat posed by anthropogenic climate change to natural and cultural World Heritage properties has been addressed by the World Heritage Committee for a long time, limited attention has been paid to the links between renewable energy projects – a strategy for societies to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions and mitigate climate change – and the protection and management of World Heritage properties.
Impacts of climate change on World Heritage
The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) World Heritage Outlook is the most comprehensive global assessment of natural World Heritage. Since its launch in 2014, two successive reports have been released, in 2017 and 2020 . The 2020 IUCN World Heritage Outlook showed that climate change was the biggest threat to natural World Heritage, with a third of natural World Heritage properties threatened by climate change.
In 2014, an assessment by the Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research determined that more than 19% of cultural World Heritage properties would be directly affected by sea-level rise in the long term.
In 2021, UNESCO, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) and the International Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS) held a joint meeting to strengthen synergies between culture and climate science in the common fight against climate change, exploring linkages between culture and heritage, climate science and climate action
ICOMOS established a Climate Action Working Group in 2016 and published a report in 2019 entitled The Future of our Pasts: Engaging Cultural Heritage in Climate Action, outlining the links and potential of heritage for climate actions. While this report encompasses cultural heritage as a whole, it puts an important emphasis on the role World Heritage properties could and should play.
In 2022, the Scientific Outcome of the International Co-Sponsored Meeting on Culture, Heritage and Climate Change was published as the result of collaboration between UNESCO and ICOMOS, co-sponsored by the IPCC. During that same year, at the UNESCO World Conference on Cultural Policies and Sustainable Development – MONDIACULT 2022, 150 countries adopted the Declaration for Culture, which stresses the importance of integrating cultural heritage and creativity into international discussions on climate change.
See the specific policy documents addressing the issue of climate change under the World Heritage Convention here
According to the Climate Change 2023 Synthesis Report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), ‘human activities, principally through emissions of greenhouse gases, have unequivocally caused global warming, with global surface temperature reaching 1.1°C above 1850–1900 in 2011–2020’ (p. 4). Therefore, an urgent and marked reduction of greenhouse gas emissions is needed to slow down climate change and maintain the health of the planet for current and future generations. Given that the consumption of fossil fuels accounts for the majority of global anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions, a transition to renewable energy sources is needed to meet society’s ever-growing energy demand. The energy transition is addressed in the United Nations’ 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 7 of which aims at ensuring access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all. SDG 13, on climate action, in turn urges global action to combat climate change and its impacts, including fast and intensive decarbonization efforts on a global scale. Faced with a climate emergency and to meet their growing energy demands, governments inevitably need to drastically cut their greenhouse gas emissions, including those produced by the use of fossil fuels, and invest in cleaner energy production by increasing their capacity for renewable energy sources such as the wind, sun, water, internal heat of Earth and biomass.
International and national policies for addressing climate change
The overarching policy framework for addressing climate change is the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). The Paris Agreement (2015) negotiated under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) sets out measures to strengthen the global response to the climate change emergency so as to hold the average global temperature rise this century well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels, and pursue efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5°C.
All credible pathways to achieving the temperature goals of the Paris Agreement require the complete electrification of energy end-uses and rapid scaling-up of renewable energy sources. The expansion and electrification of renewable energy sources are vital to meeting energy requirements currently met with carbon-intensive fossil fuels and, at the same time, meeting SDG 7’s aim of sustainable and modern energy for all.
This imperative was reflected at the twenty eighth Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (COP 28) in 2023, when over 130 countries collectively committed to tripling renewable energy capacity by 2030 as part of a ‘transition away’ from fossil fuels. Many countries and economic blocs are implementing policy to meet this commitment.
- The European Union’s revised Renewable Energy Directive (2023), which sets a target of at least 42.5% (and aiming at 45%) renewables in energy consumption in the European Union by 2030, along with provisions to accelerate renewable energy projects through simplified permitting processes. The European Commission also adopted the Green Deal Industrial Plan for the NetZero Age, which targets increased public and private investment in clean technology manufacturing.
- The African Union’s African Energy Transition Programme, which stimulates the development of the renewable energy sector of the Union’s Member States in alignment with the Paris Agreement.
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Japan’s Transformation (GX) policy, which aims to transition the country from fossil fuels to clean energy, including a ten-year roadmap of major public-private investment for various renewable sectors and technologies.
- Canada’s allocation of significant federal funding to accelerate renewable energy deployment and decarbonize large emitters, with funding and tax credit support mechanisms established for critical minerals, clean energy technologies and clean energy manufacturing.
- India’s production-linked incentive scheme to boost battery and solar photovoltaic (PV) manufacturing capacity.
- Just Energy Transition Partnerships signed by Indonesia, Senegal, South Africa and Vietnam with the International Partners Group (IPG), aiming to support ambitious national targets to accelerate energy transitions and build up renewables.
Another major driver of renewable energy expansion is the increasing cost-effectiveness of mature renewable energy technologies and the end-user technologies they can power. Nearly everywhere in the world, onshore wind and solar power projects are now cheaper to build than new fossil fuel plants, even considering the additional investment needed to manage variable generation. Many electrified end-user technologies are now more competitive or cheaper over their lifespans than their fossil-fuel-powered equivalents, including electric vehicles and heat pumps (for combined cooling and heating).
Predictions for future global energy generation show that the majority of this expansion is expected to be in solar PV and both onshore and offshore wind, given the flexibility, cost competitiveness and maturity of these technologies. Depending on the scenario, by 2035, the global installed capacity for solar PV is predicted to be between four to six times higher than in 2024 approximately, and about three to five times higher for wind power.
International climate commitments
Transformative actions are needed to limit global warming to 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels in accordance with the Paris Agreement and to meet the objectives of the Glasgow Climate Pact and other commitments made under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). Many countries have already expressed their commitment to become carbon neutral in the near future.
Main sources
UNESCO recognizes that the complexities of climate change require a holistic approach and aligns its UNESCO Strategy for Action on Climate Change (2018–2021) with this notion. With the growing interest and support of its Member States, UNESCO’s programmes and actions strongly focus on climate-change-related issues, including actions under the World Heritage Convention.
World Heritage and Climate Change
Culture and heritage considerations are key to understanding the causes and impacts of climate change and designing responses, including low-carbon, climate-resilient pathways consistent with the aims of the Paris Agreement (2015) and other international agreements relevant to climate change. The design, conception, acceptability, feasibility and effectiveness of mitigation and adaptation, including measures to promote resilience, are dependent on how well culture and heritage are understood and change across communities, regions and countries. The role of culture and heritage, including World Heritage sites, in addressing climate change is especially important within the context of human and ecosystem (including biodiversity) inter-connectedness, cities and urbanization, land and water use, and management practices and governance, including climate justice, capacity building, equity and well-being. Acknowledging and enhancing work that recognizes the contributions of culture and heritage to understanding and responding to climate change is of critical importance for climate action efforts at all levels.
In response to the recurring threat posed by climate change to World Heritage properties, a UNESCO Policy document on the impacts of climate change on World Heritage properties was developed and adopted in 2007 and has been updated as the Policy Document on Climate Action for World Heritage in 2023.
Policy document on climate action for World Heritage
This policy document was adopted by the General Assembly of States Parties to the World Heritage Convention in 2007 and the updated Policy Document on Climate Action for World Heritage adopted in 2023. In addition, the World Heritage Committee adopted the Strategy to Assist States Parties to Implement Appropriate Management Responses in 2006 and the Strategy for Reducing Risks from Disasters at World Heritage Properties in 2007.
A Climate Action Toolkit is under development by UNESCO, ICOMOS, ICCROM and IUCN to support World Heritage managers in contributing to the four goals of the policy document:
- climate risk assessment
- climate adaptation
- climate mitigation
- knowledge sharing, capacity building and awareness
World Heritage properties play an important role in climate actions. Natural World Heritage properties and large cultural landscapes can help to protect the integrity and functions of ecosystems, making a significant contribution to biodiversity conservation. This, in turn, can provide substantial co-benefits for climate mitigation and adaptation (see the joint 2021 report of IPBES-IPCC for more information). A 2021 UNESCO-IUCN study found that forests in World Heritage properties played a vital role in mitigating climate change by absorbing 190 million tonnes of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere each year. Another UNESCO study revealed that the 50 marine World Heritage properties hosted at least 21% of the world’s blue carbon ecosystem area, and 15% of the world’s blue carbon assets. The importance of ecosystem-based approaches and nature-based solutions is broadly acknowledged in policies in the fight against climate change. Cultural World Heritage can support decarbonization and combat climate change through the adaptive reuse of historic buildings. It also contributes through its role as a valuable source of knowledge and scientific information, inspiring and informing environmental and climate change management and policies.
Thanks to their international recognition and prominence, World Heritage properties are prime places to carry out a number of functions in support of climate change action. They may serve as models of sustainable development and observatories where information on applied and tested monitoring, mitigation and adaptation practices can be collected and shared. They may also showcase how societies can mitigate and adapt to climate change through an ecosystem and how they can convey traditional knowledge to build resilience for changes ahead and a sustainable future.
World Heritage properties and renewable energy projects
In this time of climate crisis, the number of renewable energy projects, including wind energy projects, will likely increase. Nevertheless, all parties concerned should keep in mind that the Outstanding Universal Value of each World Heritage property is unique.
Renewable energy projects need cautious and adequate planning and implementation to avoid negative impacts on the authenticity and integrity of World Heritage properties and their Outstanding Universal Value. For some properties, even a single solar PV installation may present a threat, while, for other properties, the installation of a wind farm within the wider setting may be possible if planned and designed to ensure the protection of the attributes of Outstanding Universal Value. For this reason, the impact of renewable energy installations on the Outstanding Universal Value of World Heritage properties should be assessed case by case, unless clear policies and plans are developed that ensure the maintenance of the Outstanding Universal Value of a property and identify renewable energy development options that are appropriate to this aim. Integrating World Heritage information into national databases and development plans can help to identify potential issues at an early stage.
To this end, the provisions of the World Heritage Convention and the Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World Heritage Convention (Operational Guidelines) request States Parties ‘to ensure that effective and active measures are taken for the protection, conservation and presentation of the cultural and natural heritage situated on their territory’ (Article 5 of the Convention). States Parties are further requested to ensure that appropriate impact assessments are carried out as a pre-requisite for development projects that are planned for implementation within or around a World Heritage property (Operational Guidelines, para. 118bis). Moreover, they are invited to inform the World Heritage Committee, through UNESCO, of their intention to undertake or authorize projects that may affect the Outstanding Universal Value of a World Heritage property in an area protected under the Convention (Operational Guidelines, para. 172). In addition, States Parties and other relevant actors need to ensure the overall sustainability of the renewable energy projects, in accordance with the sustainable development principles, in line with the Policy Document for the Integration of a Sustainable Development Perspective into the Processes of the World Heritage Convention.
The Policy Document for the Integration of a Sustainable Development Perspective into the Processes of the World Heritage Convention
The Policy Document for the Integration of a Sustainable Development Perspective into the Processes of the World Heritage Convention was adopted by the General Assembly of States Parties to the World Heritage Convention in 2015. Its aim is to guide the States Parties and other actors in such a way that World Heritage processes actively contribute to the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and to increase the effectiveness and relevance of the Convention in this regard whilst respecting its primary purpose and mandate: to protect the Outstanding Universal Value of World Heritage properties.
By identifying, protecting, conserving, presenting and transmitting irreplaceable heritage properties of Outstanding Universal Value to present and future generations, the World Heritage Convention, in itself, contributes significantly to sustainable development and the well-being of humanity. In implementing the Convention, States Parties should consider the three dimensions of sustainable development, namely environmental sustainability, inclusive social development and inclusive economic development, together with the fostering of peace and security, which should apply to all natural, cultural and mixed World Heritage properties in their diversity. The Policy calls for sustainability, through a long-term perspective. This means making decisions about World Heritage properties by thinking about the long-term impact, so that both the people of today and tomorrow are treated fairly and can enjoy a healthy, just world (Article 7 of the Convention).States Parties should always strive to avoid, and if not possible mitigate, all negative impacts on the environment and cultural diversity when conserving and managing World Heritage properties and their wider settings. States Parties should also keep in mind that these dimensions are interdependent and mutually reinforcing. Therefore, no individual dimension should be given priority and they cannot be offset against a World Heritage context.
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Notes
Note 1
Identifying sensitive areas and preparing vulnerability assessments related to renewable energy projects
What is the identification of sensitive areas and how could vulnerability assessments be used in the context of renewable energy planning?
Depending on their nature, some attributes of World Heritage properties may be more sensitive to certain impacts, including the impacts of renewable energy projects, than others. The identification and mapping of attributes allow the identification of areas that would be unsuitable for renewable energy developments; at the same time, they also help to identify other areas where renewable energy projects would potentially have no adverse impact on the Outstanding Universal Value of World Heritage properties.
A vulnerability assessment or a vulnerability study, in this context, is a process that is intended to identify threats and risks generated by potential or proposed renewable energy projects. It involves a risk-based approach, which incorporates an assessment of sensitiveness and of the possibility of eliminating or minimizing hazards. The identification of sensitive areas is ideally part of, and the result of, this more complex vulnerability assessment.
A vulnerability assessment and the identification of sensitive areas could be applied for other types of projects, threats or hazards that might have an impact on World Heritage properties. Vulnerability assessments could be prepared independently of any proposed projects, as an element of the system for managing potential threats or hazards to a World Heritage property.
What to consider when identifying sensitive areas related to a World Heritage property
The basis of any vulnerability assessment is the list of identified attributes (features) that convey the Outstanding Universal Value of the property. When considering renewable energy projects, this exercise is to take into account the specificities of the World Heritage property in question on the one hand, and the relevant information on renewable energy projects (including general information on the national or local renewable energy policies of a given country, or specific planned/proposed projects in or around the property) on the other hand.
Mapping sensitive areas related to visual values
Over the years, the relevance and number of visual impacts on World Heritage properties have increased. They have heightened the need to identify and map specific vistas, panoramas, viewpoints and silhouettes that can serve as points for monitoring potential changes in the morphology of a World Heritage property. They can also serve as monitoring points with which to assesses the maintenance of the distinctiveness of a property and to demonstrate the relationship between the World Heritage property and its surroundings (the buffer zone and the wider setting). (See details in ‘NOTE 4’) This is especially relevant for cultural World Heritage properties and natural World Heritage properties inscribed under criterion vii.The vulnerability study should cover the World Heritage property, as well as its buffer zone and wider setting (See details in section ‘Understanding World Heritage’). Such mapping may focus on matters related to how a renewable energy project might affect a World Heritage property’s Outstanding Universal Value in terms of exposure and vulnerability/sensitivity.
Factors related to wind and solar energy that may be relevant to the vulnerability assessment
- potential placement of wind or solar energy farms / development potential indices (DPIs) for wind or solar energy, if available (a DPI is a land suitability index for the installation of a wind energy facility)
- potential extension of the wind or solar energy farms and location of the ancillary infrastructure
- technical parameters of the wind turbines and solar photovoltaics (PVs) or solar hot water considered suitable in the area, including information about their construction requirements
- technical information about the associated ancillary infrastructure and its construction requirements
- potential time of construction and its technical requirements
- upkeep and maintenance requirements
- life cycle of the infrastructure
- deconstruction and its technical requirements
How to use the result of a vulnerability assessment
The result of a vulnerability study is a complex data set. The maps for sensitive or vulnerable areas are to be provided preferably with geographic information system (GIS) maps that could be included in databases and data sets with a clear explanation of the characteristic of the mapped area and its protection and management needs. Other vulnerability data (if spatial data are less or not relevant for specific attributes) could be described in a format other than a map, using clear links to the World Heritage property’s Outstanding Universal Value and attributes that convey the Outstanding Universal Value, including protection and management measures.
The data sets and maps are then to be included in the management system and management plan for a given property. This also allows the information to be included in other documents that form the basis of policymaking and planning (e.g., national/regional development plans, spatial planning documents and zoning maps), in addition to national databases for natural and cultural heritage. This process and the resulting data sets or maps make tangible and intangible values and supporting elements (including abstract concepts) perceptible; their limitations can be incorporated into sectoral strategic plans and development maps.
How identifying sensitive areas can help renewable energy projects
Vulnerability/sensitivity studies or mappings have high potential for indicating which World Heritage properties and which areas of these properties are vulnerable to the possible negative effects of renewable energy projects, and how so. They identify areas potentially suitable for renewable energy projects from a World Heritage perspective, and areas where certain or all types of renewable energy facility might have a negative impact on the Outstanding Universal Value of a World Heritage property.
The result of a vulnerability assessment for renewable energy projects can already be available when a new project is proposed, but it can also be part of an impact assessment process (See the elements of the impact assessment process in the section ‘Assessing Impacts’). Vulnerability studies can help to model and anticipate the impacts of projects and can serve as a basis for dialogue between project proponents and the authorities or organizations entrusted with the protection and management of World Heritage properties.
Case studies
See setting studies presented in World Heritage and Wind Energy Planning: Protecting Visual Integrity in the Context of the Energy Transition (2021).
See also the screening process of an impact assessment that was combined with mapping sensitive areas and finding suitable areas during the planning offshore wind turbines along the coast of Normandy, France
Note 2
Identification of rights holders and other stakeholders, and engagement tools
Identification of rights holders and other stakeholders
Identifying and engaging rights holders and other stakeholders are key to better understanding the relationship that communities and individuals have with a property. The identification of rights holders and other stakeholders is fundamental to the effective management and conservation of World Heritage properties and to the development of a participative and inclusive impact assessment process.
In order to ensure the establishment of adequate means of empowerment, engagement and/or consultation, it is fundamental to understand stakeholders’ connections to a heritage site, and to grasp the relationships and dynamics between different rights holders and stakeholder groups.
The identification of rights holders and other stakeholders consists of addressing two sets of questions: one, in relation to the property, and the other, in relation to the proposed renewable energy project. These two sets of questions are indicated below.
1) Identifying rights holders and other stakeholders in relation to a World Heritage property:
- Who are the people that have rights and/or other interests in the World Heritage property, and what communities, institutions and groups have rights and/or other interests in the World Heritage property?
- What is their role in relation to the property, and what dynamics related to them are relevant to the property?
- Who are the potential beneficiaries in relation to the World Heritage property?
- Who has decision-making power and who can influence decision-making?
2) Identifying stakeholders in relation to the proposed wind energy project:
- Who are the people that have an interest in the proposed renewable energy project, and what communities, institutions and groups have an interest in the proposed renewable energy project?
- What is their role in relation to the proposed project?
- Who are the potential beneficiaries of the renewable energy project?
- Who has decision-making power and who can influence decision-making?
- Who might be negatively or positively affected by the renewable energy project?
This information can later be translated into a stakeholder overview. The overview can be in the form of a simple table or map or a more complex visualization (e.g., mind map, Venn diagram, stakeholder circle, design thinking method) which must then be analysed to decide on the appropriate ways of working with individuals and groups at each stage of the impact assessment.
Engagement tools
This (non-exhaustive) list of tools for consultation and engagement with local communities, rights holders and other stakeholders is meant to provide inspiration for the processes related to impact assessments for wind energy projects. It is also useful for developing and implementing the protection and management needs of World Heritage properties. Please note that some methods are more informative, while others strive for active participation; the identification of the right method must be based on the individual rights holder/stakeholder and the phase in the assessment.
OFFLINE ENGAGEMENT
- focus groups and workshops
- outreach and awareness-raising events
- questionnaires, surveys and opinion research
- individual or group interviews
- live laboratories
- comment walls placed in public spaces
- media outreach
- ethnographical studies
ONLINE ENGAGEMENT
- digital platforms and spaces created to share information and project documents
- online questionnaires, surveys and opinion research
- interviews (by email or telephone)
- virtual interactive maps where rights holders and stakeholders can drop pins, comment and the like
- virtual whiteboard where people can post comments
- online workshops, meetings and videoconferences
- virtual polls
- 3D virtual engagement environments (plans, visualizations, etc.)
- media outreach
Note 3
Guiding questions to help with identifying the characteristics of impacts related to wind and solar energy and transmission infrastructure projects
The following table can also assist with the preparation of the scoping report.
Attribute of impacts Prompt question Examples Magnitude What changes will occur? A measurable estimate
e.g.,- CO2 emissions during construction
- Hectares of land cleared for the installation of wind turbines or PV arrays
Direction Is the possible impact
negative or positive?Positive
NegativeCharacteristic What kind of project impact is foreseen? Is it a direct or indirect impact?
Are there overlapping impacts?
Will cumulative impacts occur?Extent In which area will the impact take place, and what will the extent of the impact be on that area? A measurable estimate e.g., - Area of habitat cleared
- Hectares of land cleared for the installation of wind turbines or PV array
- Degree of visual changes (quantitative and qualitative)
Duration How long will the impact last? Short and medium term e.g., - Impacts occurring in the construction phase Impacts occur seasonally
e.g.,- Decreased or increased marine biodiversity
- Impacts on key vistas and panoramas
- Shadow flickering (wind)
- Glare (solar PV)
e.g.,- Impacts of wind turbines on foundation for archaeological sites or landscape morphological change due to grading for PV arrays
Frequency How often will this impact occur? Once
(e.g., during construction of the renewable energy installation)
Occasionally
(e.g., only during birds’ migratory period or breeding season of specific species)
Intermittently, frequently or periodically
(e.g., at certain times of the day, as in the case of night lights; when wind is sufficient to move the rotors of the wind turbines)
Continuously
(e.g., visual impact of turbines or PV arrays and ancillary facilities)Reversibility Can this impact be reversed? Naturally reversible
(e.g., during construction phase, temporary loss of vegetation that will fully recover in a relatively short time after construction phase) Partially reversible through human intervention (e.g., removal of the wind turbines or PV array and ancillary infrastructure with full rehabilitation of the environment)
Irreversible (e.g., excavation of archaeological sites during the construction of the wind energy infrastructures, landscape changes due to PV array installations)Likelihood How likely is this impact? Possible
e.g.,- Loss of landscape features
e.g.,- Some level of visual impact derived from renewable energy installations
e.g.,- Some extent of noise pollution and infrasound
Source: Adapted from the Guidance and Toolkit for Impact Assessments in a World Heritage Context
Note 4
Visual Impact Assessments
A Visual Impact Assessment (VIA) is a specific study that appraises the visual and aesthetic impacts of a proposed project. This type of assessment is not a stand-alone study; it should be part of the study that assesses impacts on the Outstanding Universal Value of a World Heritage property (Environmental and Social Impact Assessment [ESIA] or Heritage Impact Assessment [HIA]) where it is most likely to be relevant to its values. VIAs are largely used for assessing the impacts of proposed infrastructure projects in relation to cultural World Heritage properties inscribed for their architectural and landscape values. World Heritage properties that are inscribed on the World Heritage List under the category of cultural landscapes might be especially vulnerable to the impacts of wind and large-scale solar PV energy developments. (For details on values and attributes, see the section ‘Understanding World Heritage’)
What should be considered in relation to the World Heritage property/properties?
The visual and aesthetic impacts of wind energy facilities on the landscape are one of the main challenges faced by renewable energy development. The perception of these facilities in a landscape depends on several factors: typology of the site, morphology of the landscape, social factors, the extension of infrastructural development in the area and the level of acceptance on the part of local communities.
Renewable energy projects need to consider the possible compatibility or incompatibility between, on the one hand, wind turbines or solar PV arrays and ancillary facilities and, on the other hand, the attributes that convey the Outstanding Universal Value of a World Heritage property. They also need the support of the local communities, which need to be willing to live with and adapt to the proposed changes to their environment. Visual aspects, in this respect, play an important role in the acceptance of these projects.
Some World Heritage properties have attributes that are part of the Outstanding Universal Value and that relate to visual functions (e.g., places in the landscape or constructions that have served or still serve as functional or panoramic viewpoints, such as lookout towers or hilltops with a special aesthetic view of the surrounding landscape). The impact assessment of the proposed renewable energy project will also need to take these into consideration.
The assessment of the visual impacts of a renewable energy project relates directly to the morphology and visual qualities of the Outstanding Universal Value of properties as regards the aspect of their integrity. From the point of view of World Heritage protection and management, the project should not compromise or diminish the importance of the morphology or visual characteristics and attributes of a World Heritage property.
For a VIA in the World Heritage context, consideration should be given to:
- The property’s morphology and how it contributes to the Outstanding Universal Value of the World Heritage property and its setting;
- the overall sensitivity that a World Heritage property and its setting have to changes in general;
- the property’s sensitivity to the impacts of renewable energy facilities; this involves measuring qualitative and quantitative visual changes, particularly taking into account the installation of tall facilities such as wind turbines, large areas containing industrial facilities such as solar PV arrays, substations and power grids ( for potential dimensions of the parts of a renewable energy facilities, consult the respective parts the section ‘Understanding Renewable Energy’);
- the extent to which a property and its setting can adapt to and support change so long as its Outstanding Universal Value remains protected.
Information related to the visual sensitivity of a World Heritage property and its attributes can be collected through vulnerability studies/sensitivity mapping (See ‘Note 1’). These processes look at the connection between the property’s Outstanding Universal Value and its key panoramas and vistas, as well as intangible connections and ways in which people and communities perceive the property and its surroundings.
Further information on how the visual sensitivity of a World Heritage property can be identified
A Visual Impact Assessment needs to include a detailed map showing the location of all the attributes conveying Outstanding Universal Value, the property’s morphology, all relevant vistas and panoramas, the physical location of the proposed development and of any ancillary or attached facility, and other existing developments that might need consideration to assess possible impacts and cumulative impacts. Nevertheless, depending on the characteristics of the property and its Outstanding Universal Value, some attributes may be difficult to trace and map, and should therefore be considered beyond their physical location on a map.
The information related to the World Heritage property and to the planned wind energy development project needs to be combined in order to assess the potential impacts.
Design and siting of the renewable energy development project and electrical transmission infrastructure Factors potentially creating the impact Elements that need consideration during the assessment and evaluation of impacts - visibility of the elements of the development project
- number of wind turbines
- design and colour of the turbines
- rotor diameter
- hub height and total height of wind turbines
- lighting of wind turbines at night
- extent of visibility
- the surrounding landscape of the installation (natural or human-influenced surroundings and their visual sensitivity)
- the significance of viewsheds
- position of wind turbines and their ancillary facilities
- distribution of wind turbines within the landscape and their position in relation to the World Heritage property and its buffer zone/setting
- topographical characteristics of the property and its setting
- distance from important identified viewsheds, vistas and panoramas of the property
- the significance of viewsheds, panoramas or vistas
- visual relationships between visually important attributes of the property
- dominance within the topography
- relationship/interference with significant topographic features
- scale contrast between the wind energy infrastructure and significant features and elements in the landscape
- conditions of geography, weather, etc.
- presence of neighbouring artificial structures
- presence of other artificial structures and existing wind turbines (accumulated impacts)
- extent of the development project
- the area covered by the wind energy infrastructure
Visualization of impacts
The digital visualization of renewable energy projects is central to VIAs, as it helps with assessment. The production of a digital visualization requires adequate data, technical material and software. Good simulations or models:
Are spatially accurate and realistic, reproducing the expected appearance of the proposed project and the actual appearance of the property and its setting;
Represent different views, including different viewpoints, daytime/nighttime differences, weather conditions, lighting conditions, seasons and other details;
Are visually clear and accurate, including all the necessary details of the proposed project and the property;
Are defendable and able to withstand scientific scrutiny.Importance of visual simulations in engagement with rights holders and other stakeholders
Accurate and realistic simulations are key during the consultation process in general, but are especially important during engagement with rights holders and other stakeholders. This is because they allow individuals and communities to better understand and contextualize the project in relation to their environment and the World Heritage property.
Tools for visualizing and assessing the impact of proposed and planned wind energy infrastructures in relation to a World Heritage property and its setting can include:
- Digital terrain models (DTMs) and digital surface models (DSMs), which make it possible to show precise distances and heights between the property, the viewpoints and the potential placement of the renewable energy installation, including the topography between these elements;
Visualization tools Data requirement Comments Digital terrain model and
digital surface modelFor both DTM and DSM:
- identification of visually sensitive areas
- views of buildings of cultural or historical significance
- vantage points and locations frequented by a large number of visitors (walking trails, etc.)
- views in the direction of the property (showing silhouettes from outside)
Viewpoints need to be chosen in agreement with all bodies involved.
The advantage is that this allows immediate depiction and consideration of forests, buildings and obstructing views, and so on.- Photo simulation and photomontage: Photographic-based assessments, such as photomontage and modelling, should provide clear technical information on the position of the camera and the focal length used for the images contained in the montage; this information is vital to proving the reliability of the recommendations derived from the visual impact study;
Visualization tools Data requirement Technical requirements Comments Photo simulation and photomontage - digital terrain and surface models
- selected viewpoints (vantage points/observer points)
- exact location of the renewable energy installations
- exact type of the renewable energy installations
- adequate software tool for executing the simulation
- technically adequate photographic material for the simulation
- viewpoints from inside the property with views onto the outside also need to be considered
For the photographic material: - precise geographic coordinates (including altitude) of the camera’s position and viewpoint
- date and time of the photograph
- type of camera
- lighting conditions (front-lit, back-lit, side-lit)
- type and model of camera and lenses
- focal distance/ length (35 mm format in digital single-lens reflex [SLR] cameras)
- width of lens angle (to provide realistic proportions between the landscape and the planned renewable energy facilities)
- record of different weather conditions (including optimal visibility conditions)
- distance from the proposed development (i.e., wind turbine. PV array, or other ancillary facilities)
- dynamic effect of the rotating blades (wind) or glare (PV array)
- coloured markings of towers and rotor blades and flashing lights on the nacelles and towers (wind)
- screening, fencing and lighting (PV array)
The description of each photo simulation is very important. This includes information on the viewpoint (Where was the photo taken and what do we see?), orientation (with directions and degrees), focal length, the number of viewpoints, and so on. - Viewpoint photography;
- 3D modelling and digital simulations;
- Colour- and light-based methods;
- Zone of visual influence maps;
- Line-of-sight technique is a digital and GIS-based assessment that applies an accurate representation of the shape of renewable energy facilities to better understand the human eye’s perception of these facilities; it takes into account the distortion of the perceived shape and size of facilities caused by the location of the observer, and it calculates the possible obscuring of facilities caused by terrain morphology; this technique also enables the inclusion of information on other existing facilities to represent the landscape more accurately;
- Landscape sensitivity assessments;
- Landscape quality assessments;
- Viewshed analysis in a GIS (or visual envelope) map : A digital evaluation model based on GIS data that is used to determine which parts of a landscape are visible or not visible from a particular vantage point.
Assessing visual impacts
Potential visual impacts should be evaluated by considering the visual sensitivity of the property and the potential magnitude and significance of the impact on the property’s Outstanding Universal Value.
The assessment should be based on key sets of information concerning:
- Characteristics of the World Heritage property related to identified key visual aspects, scenic views and panoramas, including information on:
The topography of the property and the connections within the property, and between the property and its setting;
Attributes conveying the Outstanding Universal Value of the property and values that are not part of the Outstanding Universal Value but have a role in supporting it; - Key observation points (KOPs), including sensitive areas, panoramas and viewsheds that can support the protection of the Outstanding Universal Value;
- Visual characteristics of the proposed wind energy project, solar energy project or transmission infrastructure installation, including information on:
WIND SOLAR The location of the proposed installation and, if applicable, the ancillary facilities Scale of the renewable energy project Relationship to other existing or planned renewable energy facilities Form of the infrastructure and other facilities Height of wind turbines (hub and with blades) and other facilities Layout of the proposed solar array Rotor diameter of the wind turbines Support structure type, material and sizes Colour, including possible colour contrast between the wind turbines and the surrounding land- or seascape Colour, including possible colour contrast between the PV panels and the surrounding land- or seascape Texture/material of the wind turbines and other facilities Size, type and finish of the individual arrays Glare of the wind turbines Glint and glare Lighting of the wind turbines Lighting of the PV installation Motion of wind turbines Reflection of sunlight off the PV panels Number and distribution of the wind turbines within a given area Number and distribution of the solar installations within a given area Visual lines and axes of the facilities (paths followed by the eye when perceiving obstructions and abruptions in a landscape) There are multiple methodologies for the identification of possible visual impacts and many more for the evaluation of these impacts. There is no standard, universally agreed or unilaterally agreed methodology for assessing the visual impacts of wind energy facilities on a World Heritage property. Therefore, the decision in favour of a specific VIA methodology should be justified by technical considerations regarding the Outstanding Universal Value of the World Heritage property and the proposed renewable energy project. Nevertheless, as already mentioned, the visual impacts of renewable energy projects should never be assessed in isolation; they should be considered within the scope of a full-fledged impact assessment focused on World Heritage and together with other impacts, including environmental, cultural heritage, social and economic impacts.
The methodology applied in the assessment should be described clearly and with specific reference to the evaluation criteria considered during the process. There are various possible typologies of assessments with consolidated scientific and technical requirements. They should all consider the following with quantitative and qualitative methodologies:
The extent of the visibility of a renewable energy facility (e.g., maximum vertical angle of visibility, horizontal angle of visibility);
The distance of the project and of its visible elements (including other features of the project) from identified key observation points and viewpoints;
The number of visible elements and other features of the project (at a given vertical angle and above); The significance of the viewshed;
The character of the landscape or seascape, and the surroundings of the installation (natural or human-influenced surroundings and their visual sensitivity relevant to the Outstanding Universal Value of the property).Assessment of the degree of the impacts will need to take into consideration the level of visual intrusion and obstruction in relation to identified sensitive areas or key panoramas and vistas.
Assessing the level of visual impacts
Degree of impact Description Large A proposed renewable energy project is intrusive, dominant and/or extensive, with a direct impact on the attributes of the Outstanding Universal Value and the wider setting of the property. The project would considerably transform the characteristics of the property. The proposed renewable energy project would completely change the character of setting of the property, resulting in negative impacts that could not be mitigated, because of their major negative effect on the Outstanding Universal Value of the property. Medium A proposed renewable energy project is noticeable and has a potential impact on the property or part of its Outstanding Universal Value. The renewable energy installation and ancillary facilities are an uncharacteristic element in the context of property and its landscape. This could result in the renewable energy installation being out of scale with regard to attributes of the property’s Outstanding Universal Value, or in the installation being located somewhat visibly within a key view or panorama. Small The visual changes introduced by the proposed renewable energy project are limited and would not completely alter the characteristics of the property and its setting. Mitigation measures could be considered to avoid any negative visual impact. Negligible The proposed renewable energy project involves a visual change which is not perceptible. The proposed project has no visible negative impact on the property and its Outstanding Universal Value. This could be the case of projects complementing or maintaining the scale and quality of the surrounding landscape. Table: Magnitude of impact, adapted from Apostol et al. (2016)
Examples of potential visual impacts of wind or solar energy development on the Outstanding Universal Value of World Heritage properties are listed below
Potential type of impact Description Examples Technology overload effect The technology overload effect arises when the number of technological items in an area increases to the point that their visual presence overpowers the character of the embedding or juxtaposed cultural landscape with its natural and cultural historical structures and elements. - Natural landscapes and elements of natural beauty and aesthetic importance in a landscape may be considerably altered, cultural and historical buildings may lose their importance on the horizon and views may be disrupted.
Visual dominance Visual dominance is a consequence of the size and visibility of wind turbines or the extent of a solar PV array or concentrated solar power (CSP) installation. The observer primarily recognizes the renewable energy installation instead of the cultural or natural heritage elements or the natural phenomena in a landscape. - The wind turbines alter the existing harmonious relationships between the different characteristics and elements of natural beauty and aesthetic importance in a landscape.
- A solar PV array dominates an agricultural landscape, changing it from a rural to a technological/industrial landscape.
- The movement of wind turbine rotors creates a disquieting effect within the landscape and disturbs natural tranquillity.
- A high-voltage transmission line runs through a cultural landscape that is also valuable for its beauty.
Loss of scale The effect of a loss of scale is such that well-known large natural elements such as trees, or cultural elements such as towers or castles are visually dwarfed by new technical installations. The new scale of these elements is disproportional. The scale of visual influence and impairment is such that the renewable energy installation and related facilities dwarf and affect the value of the surrounding buildings, natural features and elements of natural beauty and aesthetic importance in a landscape. Barrier effect This is generally caused when the positioning of the renewable energy installation creates a visual barrier between different landscape elements. - The renewable energy installation may cut through a landscape and interrupt the interrelationships between different landscape features or key views that are part of the Outstanding Universal Value. Furthermore, it may separate the World Heritage property from its embedding landscape.
- The continuity of a landscape with view axes from short and long distances may be lost.
Case studies
See case studies in World Heritage and Wind Energy Planning: Protecting Visual Integrity in the Context of the Energy Transition (2021).
In 2013, the Landscape Institute and the Institute of Environmental Management and Assessment (IEMA) published Guidelines for Landscape and Visual Impact Assessment (GLVIA3). This is a key resource for those involved in assessing visual impacts or reviewing an impact assessment report including specific references to the assessment of visual and landscape impacts.
Although Guidelines for Landscape and Visual Impact Assessment is not a document specific to World Heritage and does not focus on the Outstanding Universal Value of World Heritage properties, it nevertheless could serve as key guidance for the assessment of a property’s visual sensitivity and the identification and evaluation of possible visual impacts.
The non-governmental organization Kompetenzzentrum Naturschutz und Energiewende prepared a useful document on facilitating wind energy project planning in Germany (available in German).
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Case Studies
received from States PartiesThe case studies that are referenced in relevant parts of the Guidance, are contributions from respective States Parties to the Convention, providing insight to planning and implementing wind energy projects which relate to World Heritage properties.
The information and approach included in the case studies do not necessarily reflect the views and standpoints of UNESCO. UNESCO does not warrant that the information contained in these case studies are complete and correct and shall not be liable whatsoever for any damages incurred as a result of their use.
The World Heritage Centre wishes to leave open the possibility for States Parties to provide further relevant case studies, which is possible by submitting a request to the following email address: wh.eur@unesco.org
- Assessment of cumulative impacts of multiple developments near a World Heritage property in Canada
- Policy framework for a controlled wind energy development near a transboundary World Heritage property (Denmark, Germany, the Netherlands)
- Planning offshore wind turbines along the coast of Normandy, France
- Strategic planning of wind energy projects outside a World Heritage property and its buffer zone in the Upper Middle Rhine Valley in Germany
- Impact assessment of a wind energy development project near a World Heritage property in the Netherlands
- Stakeholder participation and engagement – a discussion forum to develop joint recommendations, the example of the KNE Dialogue (Germany)
- Assessing the potential visual impact of onshore wind energy projects in relation to a World Heritage property in the United Kingdom
- The Netherlands' national-level guidance for the integration of solar photovoltaic (PV) systems in cultural heritage contexts
- National guide to the architectural and landscape integration of solar panels in France
- Action protocol for the assessment of implementing renewable energies in cultural assets in Spain
- Understanding sensitivities and vulnerabilities at the La Chaux-de-Fonds / Le Locle, Watchmaking Town Planning World Heritage property in Switzerland
- Developing the city of Sanchi, India's first 'solar city' in the setting of the Buddhist Monuments at Sanchi
- Project analysis and decision-making for solar PV installations at the Bois-de-Luc component of the Major Mining Sites of Wallonia (Belgium)
- Repowering the Floriana Island (Galápagos Islands, Ecuador) with solar PV power plants
- Integrating solar PV planning into urban plans and policies in the Town of Bamberg (Germany)
- Integrating solar PV planning into urban plans and policies in the Hanseatic City of Lübeck (Germany)
- A Solar PV installation to support local communities on isolated islands: The case of Aldabra Atoll (Seychelles)
- A Solar PV installation to support local communities on isolated islands: The case of Lord Howe Island (Australia)
- A Solar PV installation to support local communities on isolated islands: The case of Komodo National Park (Indonesia)
- A Solar PV installation to support local communities on isolated islands: The case of San Christobal Island (Galápagos Islands, Ecuador)
- Lessons learnt from solar PV installations and community engagement at Petra (Jordan)
- Installing a BIPV system in a publicly accessible rooftop terrace at the Royal Opera in Madrid (Spain)
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Resources
World Heritage
Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage. 1972.Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World Heritage Convention
World Heritage POLICY COMPENDIUM
Managing Cultural World Heritage. UNESCO et al.
Preparing World Heritage Nominations, World Heritage Resource Manual. UNESCO et al. 2011.
Guidance on Developing and Revising World Heritage Tentative Lists. UNESCO et al. 2020.
The Nara Document on Authenticity. ICOMOS. 1994.
Document of the International World Heritage Expert Meeting on Visual Integrity Agra, India. 2013.
World Heritage and Renewable Energy
GOOD PRACTICES: success stories on sustainable and renewable energies in UNESCO Sites. UNESCO. 2013.Climate Change and World Heritage
Climate Change and World HeritagePolicy Document on the impacts of climate change on World Heritage properties. 2021.
World Heritage Outlook 3. IUCN. 2020.
Future of Our Pasts: Engaging Cultural Heritage in Climate Action. ICOMOS. 2019.
Sustainable Development
The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development adopted by all United Nations Member States in 2015World Heritage and Sustainable Development
Impact assessment for World Heritage properties
Guidance and Toolkit for Impact Assessment in a World Heritage context. 2022
Impact Assessment for World Heritage II – steps and processes. Webinar. ICCROM, IUCN, ICOMOS. 2020.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z-wLI8MFrzo&t=2s&pp=0gcJCb4JAYcqIYzv
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9NQkIbhARVI
Mitigating biodiversity impacts associated with solar and wind energy development
The publications of the International Association for Impact Assessment (IAIA) might also serve as useful sources of updated general information related to the complex aspects of impact assessment.
https://www.iaia.org/publications.php
https://www.iaia.org/improving-decision-making-for-the-energy-transition.phpRights-holders, stakeholders and participation
World Heritage and Indigenous Peoples
UNESCO policy on engaging with indigenous peoples. 2018.
People-Centred Approaches. ICCROM.
People-Centred Approaches to Conservation of Cultural Heritage: Living Heritage. ICCROM. 2011.
World Heritage and Rights-Based Approaches. ICOMOS Norway, ICOMOS, IUCN and ICCROM. 2014.
World Heritage and Rights-Based Approaches. ICOMOS Norway.
Rights-based approaches to conservation. IUCN.
Our Common Dignity Initiative. ICOMOS.
Environmental and social framework. The World Bank. 2017.
Social Impact Assessment (SIA). International Institute for Sustainable Development. 2016.
Biodiversity Enhancement
Opportunities for enhancing biodiversity at wind and solar energy developments. IUCN and TBC, 2025.
Biodiversity Guidance for Solar Developments. BRE 2014.
Nature Positive: Role of the Offshore Wind Sector. WEF Insight Report 2025.
Responsible sourcing
Spatial, cumulative and strategic planning and assessment
Spatial planning for wind and solar developments and associated infrastructure. IUCN and TBC 2025.
Mainstreaming Biodiversity into Renewable Power Infrastructure. OECD 2024.
Building a Nature-Positive Energy Transformation. WWF and BCG 2023.
Renewable energy
Published in 2025 by UNESCO, ICCROM, ICOMOS and IUCN under CC-BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO license
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