Archaeological sites of Lalmai-Mainamati

Description

Location and landscape

The property is located in the prominent Buddhist religious centre of Lalmai-Mainamati representing twin villages on a hill range. The low and lenticular shaped hill range has a maximum height of 45 metres, is 17 kilometres long (from north to south) and at its widest part is 4.5 kilometres wide (from east to west). It rises within a vast floodplain formed by the active and moribund part of the Brahmaputra-Meghna delta. The hill range with a cluster of archaeological sites – many of them already excavated and protected – has the Gomati River and its palaeo-channels connecting the archaeological cluster to the Meghna River to the west and the Bay of Bengal to the south. The following table provides a list of the 21 property components:

S.l.	Site Name	State, Province or Region (Cumilla, Chattagram Division)		Latitude and Longitude, or UTM coordinates	Foundation Period
		Union	Sub-district
1	Ranir Bunglow Temple (Rani Mainamatir Bari)	Mainamati	Burichang	23°29'46.86" N 91°06'27.53" E	c. 10th-12th centuries CE
2	Mainamati Mound-1	Mainamati	Burichang	23°29'13.2" N 91°06'31.9" E	--
3	Mainamati Mound-2	Bijoypur	Cumilla Sadar	23°28'28.8" N 91°07'19.8" E	--
4	Charpatra Mura	Bijoypur	Cumilla Sadar	23°28'26.2" N 91°06'55.9" E	c. 10th-13th  centuries CE
5	Kutila Mura	Bijoypur	Cumilla Sadar	23°27'29.1" N 91°07'24.1" E	c. 6th-11th  centuries CE
6	Bairagir Mura	Bijoypur	Cumilla Sadar	23°27'21.6" N 91°07'12.0" E	--
7	Ananda Vihara (Ananda Rajar Bari)	Bijoypur	Cumilla Sadar	23°26'57.6" N 91°07'46.5" E	c. 8th  century CE
8	Rupban Kanya’s Palace (Rupban Kanyar Bari)	Bijoypur	Cumilla Sadar	23°26'45.6" N 91°07'37.7" E	--
9	Bhoj Vihara (Bhoj Rajar Bari)	Bijoypur	Cumilla Sadar	23°26'31.6" N 91°07'53.6" E	c. 8th  century CE
10	Itakhola Mura	Bijoypur	Cumilla Sadar	23°26'19.7" N 91°07'45.9" E	c. 8th century CE
11	Latikot Mura	Bijoypur	Cumilla Sadar	23°26'19.5" N 91°07'53.5" E	c. 8th-13th  century CE
12	Rupban Mura	Bijoypur	Cumilla Sadar	23°26'11.2" N 91°07'45.3" E	c. 8th  century CE
13	Kotbari Mura	Bijoypur	Cumilla Sadar	23°26'12.5" N 91°07'15.0" E	c. 8th  century CE
14	Hatigara Mura	Kalir bazar	Cumilla Sadar	23°26'07.9" N 91°07'01.4" E	c. 8th  century CE
15	Ujirpur Mound (Ujirpur Dhibi)	Kalir bazar	Cumilla Sadar	23°25'43.5" N 91°07'01.9" E	c. 11th  century CE
16	Shalban Vihara	Shalmanpur	Cumilla Sadar	23°25'34.4" N 91°08'16.3" E	c. 7th-13th centuries CE
17	Pakka Mura	Kalir bazar	Cumilla Sadar	23°25'13.1" N 91°06'49.9" E	c. 8th  century CE
18	Chila Mura	Bijoypur	Cumilla Sadar Dakshin	23°24'04.3" N 91°08'31.9" E	c. 7th  century CE
19	Rupbani Mura	Bijoypur	Cumilla Sadar	23°22'58.7" N 91°07'14.3" E	c. 8th cen. CE
20	Balagazi Mura	Bara Para	Cumilla Sadar Dakshin	23°22'20.2" N 91°07'52.2" E	c. 7th  century CE
21	Chandi Mura (Chandi Mura Temple)	Dakshin Silmuri	Barura	23°21'12.2" N 91°07'55.2" E	c. 8th  cen CE

 

Historical background and geography

The ‘Lalmai-Mainamati’ area was a part of the sub-region of Samatata (flat coastal area), a cultural and political unit between c. 4^th and 12^th century CE. The area covered the trans-Meghna basin and was adjacent to the region of Harikela (present-day Chittagong). The earliest mention of ‘Samatata’ is found in the Allahabad pillar inscription of Gupta ruler Samudragupta (c. 4^th century CE) along with Davaka and Kamrupa (present-day Assam-Meghalaya of India). The mention of this name and other names are more frequent in the textual and epigraphic records after c. 6^th century CE. The fame, importance and influence of Samatata as a Mahayana Buddhist religious centre can be found in the travelogue of the renowned Chinese monks Xuanzang in the 7^th century CE and Sheng-chi in the second half of the 7^th century CE. The dynastic history of this sub-region is well established with the aid of copper plate inscriptions from several dynasties following mainly the Buddhist religious traditions. These are Gupta dynasty (c. 4^th – 6^th centuries CE), Natha dynasty (early 7^th century CE), Rata dynasty (c. 7^th century CE), Khadga dynasty (from the latter part of the 7^th – 8^th century CE), Early Deva dynasty (latter part of the 8^th – 9^th century CE), Chandra dynasty (latter part of the 9^th – 11^th century CE), Varman dynasty (latter part – 11^th – 12^th century CE), and Later Deva dynasty (c. 13^th century CE). Based on epigraphic records, the place is identified as Devaparvata (a hill resided by gods), the capital city during the Chandra and Deva Dynasties. The epigraphic records elaborately narrate the sites and surroundings of the vibrant landscape, forest, rivers and the people in and around this crucial centre of Mahayana Buddhism from c. 7^th to 13^th centuries CE (identified as the early medieval period in the eastern part of South Asia). This place is also associated in these records with lalambi-vana (forest on red soil), the city of Pattikhera and the Lauhitya River (present-day Old Brahmaputra and Jamuna rivers) along with many other place names.

Excavated archaeological sites and findings

The excavated sites represent seven viharas (Buddhist monasteries), temples, stupas, shrines and immensely significant finds comprising stone and bronze images of different deities of Buddhist and Brahmanical pantheon, copperplate inscriptions, clay votive stupas and inscribed tablets, metal objects like miniate bronze stupa and bronze bells, terracotta plaques depicting religious and secular being, coins, pottery and many other artefacts. The brief descriptions of the excavated sites are:

1. Ranir Bunglow Temple (Palace and Temple of Queen Mainamati): During archaeological excavation, monumental remains of three construction periods within a heavily fortified enclosure were discovered. Evidence of the earliest architectural period is a basement of a cruciform temple which measures 44.4m × 44.4m. Terracotta plaques, potteries and other artefacts from the excavation suggest that the temple was constructed and used during the 10^th - 12^th century CE.
2. Char Patra Mura Mound: The excavation revealed a small rectangular Brahmanical temple measuring 45.7m × 16.8m. It evidently belongs to the 10^th-11^th century CE and later. The remains represent the earliest Brahmanical edifice in this region. The temple has two distinct parts: an open pillared hall to the east and a solid sanctum to the west. The most notable archaeological findings from this site are a bronze relic casket and four copperplate grants. The inscriptions suggest that the temple was dedicated to Ladaha-madhava (the Brahmanical deity - Visnu) and it was in the capital city of Devaparvata.
3. Kutila Mura: Kutila Mura is an architectural ensemble with a unique layout and morphology, entirely different from the Buddhist remains in Bangladesh and adjoining regions. The lower part of three circular stupas with a frontal rectangular assembly hall and other votive stupas were found during excavation. The three principal stupas represent the three jewels (tri-ratna) of Buddhism: Buddha, Dharma/Dhamma and Samgha. The foundation of the middle stupa was laid in the form of a dharma-chakra (wheel of dharma, a central symbol in Buddhism). The hub of the wheel is represented by a deep shaft, while the spokes were formed by eight box chambers where innumerable tiny terracotta and clay votive stupas and inscribed lay tablet were found together with sculptural fragments, together with large pieces of a class of fine Buddhist sculptures in soft grey shale. Five epigraphic records found from this region mention explicitly or hint at ratna-traya (three jewels) shrines in Devaparvata.
4. Ananda Vihara (Ananda Raja’s Palace): It is a large monastery, measuring 198 metres square with 115 cells in four wings. The central shrine of this monastery initially had a cruciform ground plan that was changed into a rectangular plan at a later stage. A life-size broken bronze image of Avalokitesvara, a copperplate inscription, silver coins, numerous miniature bronze images, terracotta plaques were discovered at the site.
5. Bhoj Vihara (Bhojaraja’s Palace): A square Buddhist monastery (each wing measuring 137.2m) with a large cruciform shrine at the centre of its open courtyard was discovered from the site during an archaeological excavation. The courtyard is crowded with a host of auxiliary buildings of votive stupas, subsidiary shrines and chapels. Images of Amitabha Aksobhya and a giant bronze image of Vajrasattva, probably the largest in South Asia, were found at the site.
6. Itakhola Mura: This site revealed a grand monastery and stupa complex. The stupa was originally built as a solid 13.1 metres square platform with a small chamber (2.4m × 2.1m) at the eastern or front side. A damaged life-size stucco image of Aksobhya was discovered in situ. This sacred zone is well-defined by a boundary wall (79m × 56m) at the slightly lower second terrace. The Monastery is square in shape with a central hall and 19 cells. Its central hall is a square in shape with 16.2 meters on each side which was built in an open courtyard. Its monumental gateway complex (15.6 meters x 8.5 meters) projecting outwards lies at the center of the eastern wing. A copperplate inscription and gold objects were the primary artefacts along with pottery. The earliest date of the remains can be ascribed to the 7^th - 8^th centuries CE.
7. Latikot Mura: This is another Buddhist monastic complex, and it contains 33 cells, an entrance hall and a courtyard. Remains of a temple of the second construction period were exposed at the centre of the eastern part. The construction of this vihara can be dated to the 8th century CE on the basis of architectural style.
8. Rupban Mura: A cruciform temple and a monastery were discovered at the site by excavations. The cruciform temple was based upon a square platform. It was subsequently converted into a semi-cruciform shrine measuring 28.2m × 28m, probably during the 8th century CE. Its regular entrance is on the east, facing the monastery entrance. The earliest construction period of the site belongs to circa 6^th - 7^th century CE. It has a uniqueness in the construction style. Instead of a sanctuary built in each of the long arms of the cross, a group of three long narrow sanctuaries was built in the eastern (frontal) part of the shrine. A colossal stone image of Buddha was discovered from this temple. The monastery is square with 34.1m wings on each side. Significant discoveries from the site are a Mahapratisara image, a colossal stone Buddha, a huge bell of bronze weighted half metric ton, and five debased gold coins of Balabhatta who was the Khadga ruler.
9. Hatigara Mura: A square brick-built base of a stupa with each side measuring 7m was discovered during recent archaeological excavations. The excavation is yet to be completed.
10. Salban Vihara: This is the second-largest monastery at Lalmai-Mainamati measuring 167.6m on each side and comprised of 115 monk cells. The gateway on the north consists of a projected structure with a 22.2m wide facade. According to epigraphic records, Sri Bhavadeva, the ruler of the Deva Dynasty, built this edifice towards the end of the 7^th century CE or early 8th century CE. At that time, it was known as Sri Bhavadeva mahavihara. The artefacts from this site include 7 copper plate inscriptions, more than 350 gold, silver and copper coins, terracotta objects, baked clay seals, many stone and bronze images and terracotta plaques. The central shrine in the courtyard was cruciform in plan. Remains of several subsidiary stupas and shrines were found in well-preserved state in the courtyard and outside the monastic building.

The other sites are yet to be excavated. The spatial pattern of the excavated and recorded archaeological mounds suggests that several other Buddhist monasteries and shrines along with valuable artefacts could be unearthed in these sites.

Justification of Outstanding Universal Value

Criterion (ii): These are seven Buddhist monasteries with distinctive forms of temple architecture that have not been found anywhere else in South Asia. These monasteries were constructed on an uplifted hillock by modifying and using the contour of the landscape. The Buddhist establishment developed into an immensely important centre of Buddhist practices and pilgrimage. It continued at least until the 14th century CE or even later within the sub-regions of Samatata and Harikela of the southeastern part of Bangladesh. The enormous and intricately organised architectural remains of Buddhist monasteries, temples, stupas, and shrines of Lalmai-Mainamati Hill with numerous sculptures, coins, terracotta plaques, epigraphic records, metal objects, inscribed votive clay tablets, is recognized as the fourth most impactful centre in the later development of Mahayana and Tantric Buddhism in recent studies. The region covering the north-western part of Bangladesh and Bihar-West Bengal region in India, with Tibetan and Central Asian connections under the patronage of the Pala rulers of northeast India, was the initial centre of the evolution of Tantric Buddhism. Sri Lanka became the centre of a revitalized Theravada Buddhism. Different areas in China emerged as the third centre of Buddhism’s Mahayana sects. Lalmai-Mainamati in the trans-Meghna basin emerged as the fourth centre with connectivity to Southeast Asia and maritime trade routes. The architectural remains, the landscape context and the material culture from different sites of this property undoubtedly demonstrate the interchange of technological, artistic and architectural styles, coinage and many other areas of human creativity, ideas, and religious traditions.

The centrality of this site in the early medieval Buddhist religious network is attested by the account of the famous Chinese pilgrim Xuan Zang (c. 629-645 CE). He mentioned the influential role of this centre in the region by generating, circulating and appropriating various Buddhist religious and ritualistic traditions and practices. The areas having linkages with this centre and regions mentioned by Xuan Zang can be identified as follows: Shi-li-cha-ta-lo (Srik Shetra in Myanmar), Kia-mo-land-kia (Kamalāṅka, identified as Pegu and the Irrawaddy delta in Myanmar), To-lo-po-ti (Dvārāvatī in present Thailand), I-shung-na-pu-lo (Ishāṇapura, to the east of Dvārāvatī), Mo-ho-chen-po (Mahāchampā in Vietnam) and Yen-nio-na-chen (identification uncertain, Java according to some scholars).

Like many other early Buddhist centres, this dense and unique cluster of monasteries and temples on the higher altitude of a hill range (the Buddhist samgha) within a flat, riverine and estuarine landscape had continuous exchanges and connection with the agrarian communities (the laity) on the floodplain around.

Buddhist monastic sites and centres have been found along the trade routes. Lalmai-Mainamati was such a centre strongly associated with the trade routes. When Tamralipta declined, the Ganga valley Samatata via Pundravardhana to the west, Kamrupa to the north and South-eastern Asian ports were connected via the port of Samandar in Harikela. Buddhist monks and merchants from Samatata could perhaps use the important maritime port of Samandar in the present-day Chittagong area and finally traverse the Bay of Bengal for the countries of Southeast Asia. The interaction continued even during the medieval period of Bengal. The capital of Samatata, Devaparvata, was an important riverine trade centre of southeastern Bengal and it was connected to Samandar and an extended maritime network. The mention of terms in the epigraphic sources such as Naudandakas (a place where many boats came together) in Chandra copper plate points at the crucial role the centre played in the exchange of ideas, goods and creative technologies.

The temple architecture of the monasteries of Salban vihara, Ananda vihara, Bhoj vihara and Rupban mura has been influenced by and have made stylistic influence upon the morphology of temple architecture in renowned Buddhist sites in South Asia and Southeast Asia. Popularly known as cruciform temples, these temples represent different phases in the development of Buddhist temple architecture. With a square or rectangular core projected towards each cardinal direction, these temples were approachable initially from four cardinal directions. They are surrounded by pradakshin patha (circumambulatory passages) in multiple vertically receding steps with a conjectured shikhara at the top. The specific temple morphology is influenced by the temples of the famous Buddhist centres to the west like Antichalk (identified as the Vikramshila mahavihara) of Bihar, India, as well as Somapura mahavihara and Bharat Bhaina in Bangladesh. The influence is exemplified by the Lemethna and Myin-Pa-Gu Temples (Myanmar) and Wat Kaew temple (Thailand).

The discovery of several bronze images and objects from these sites and the images from Bihar and West Bengal (India), Tibet (China), northwestern and central parts of Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Eastern Java (Indonesia) and areas around Isthmus of Kra had developed a common and shared artistic style with regard to bronze images and objects. Stone images made of the stones from the Chhotonagpur plateau (India) were carved and brought to this place by land and riverine routes. The artistic designs from Lalmai-Mainamati had even influenced the textile and wall ornamentations as is attested by the evidence from Pagan (Myanmar). The artistic and trade exchanges continued for more than seven centuries.

There was a shared coinage tradition in Samatata and Southeast Asia in the early medieval period when there was an absence of metallic currency in other parts of Bangladesh and the eastern part of India. This coinage was developed from the metal imported from Southeast Asia and they were used simultaneously with cowries. This centre is characterized by a dual-monetary system (both metallic and non-metallic currencies) suggesting a complex and multitiered exchange network.

Criterion (iv): The construction of monasteries in a clustered fashion by using the topography and slope of the landscape and by selecting a place with an intimate relationship with agrarian floodplain, riverine routes and networks are exceptional and unparalleled in South Asian and Asian contexts. Although construction of building and monumental architecture on mountains and hills are common in South and Southeast Asia, the architectural forms and styles (particularly of the temples) and the spatial ensemble of monumental remains represent a stage of history in South and Southeast Asia which was vibrant and which was characterized by trans-regional mobility. Another evidence of the exceptional nature of technology and development is the bronze metallurgy depicted in religious objects and sculptures as well as votive objects.

Monumental architecture such as the ratna-traya stupa in Lalmai-Mainamati is unique in the sense that the central stupa was designed with a core representing the dharmachakra (wheel of dharma) central to Buddhist religious tradition. The only parallel example could be found in Nagarjonakonda (India). This tri-ratna (representing Budhha, Dharma/Dhamma and Sangha) stupas contained numerous clay votive stupas encasing charred bones and clay tablets engraved with sacred and commemorating verse of Buddhist creed (dharana). These three stupas with other associated chambers and stupas of Kutila mura represent an exceptional sacred space where funerary and non-funerary religious practices prevailed at the same time.

Criterion (v): Justifications of criteria ii and iv clearly demonstrate that Lalmai-Mainamati, as a Buddhist religious as well as a centre for the wide trans-regional exchange of ideas, creativity, religious practices, objects, trade items and technological/architectural style, is a perfect example of the use of landscape on a transitional area. This area of ancient Samatata intersected landscape and waterscape (both riverine and sea). This is a rare example of the embodiment of the interaction among human, land and water for more than seven centuries. Because of the lurking threat of climate change and the increase in sea level, the area with its surrounding trans-Meghan region is in danger of obliteration. The intimate interaction of human and their environment and the impact of the interaction upon the fashioning of religious practices are exemplified by the archaeological sites in their landscape of Lalmai-Mainamati.

Statements of authenticity and/or integrity

Authenticity

The excavated, conserved and protected archaeological sites and their landscape clearly represent the authentic attestation of human creative and building technologies and their use of the landscape. The property as a complex or cluster of properties were constructed mainly by burnt bricks and slay mortars, with occasional use of stone blocks. The excavations revealed the architectural remains up to the plinth level. The superstructures of the monasteries, temples, stupas, and other architectural assemblages were destroyed during and after the abandonment of the centre. The remains were found incomplete and they have gone through weathering and damage by the passage of time. The remains, nevertheless, have provided evidence based upon which the original characters and layout of the buildings and associated landscape, the traditional construction materials and techniques, and the common regional use of clay for producing bricks as well as for binding the construction material can be inferred with a high degree of precision. In a few cases, relatively climate-sensitive remains, such as stucco made life-size images made of vulnerable materials along with terracotta plaques and ornamentations have been preserved. The present state of the sites and landscape corroborate closely with the Nara Document on Authenticity.

Integrity

Despite the recent expansion of developmental and habitational activities, most of the proposed archaeological sites and monumental remains have relatively negligible evidence of human intervention. The impact of natural decay processes has been reduced by the continuous protection and conservation as well as monitoring of the properties. The modification of the landscape is increasing because of the human activities in a densely-populated country like Bangladesh. The continuous monitoring of the Department of Archaeology, Ministry of Cultural Affairs of these sites, protected under the Antiquity Act, 1972, has retained the original nature and character of the sites when they were exposed by excavations. A few sites are under the ownership of the Cumilla Cantonment, but they are conserved and monitored by the Department of Archaeology under the Antiquity Act. The subsequent conservation acts have been regular, systematic and normative. They have followed the international conventions and standards in protection and conservation. These sites are major tourist destinations of the region. The touristic activities are controlled and managed according to the accepted guidelines and as per the required accountability and community-oriented engagements.

Comparison with other similar properties

The proposed property is comparable to the World Heritage Site of ‘Archaeological Site of Nalanda Mahavihara at Nalanda, Bihar’ (3^rd century BCE-13^th century CE) in the religious nature and clustered organization of Buddhist monastic complexes. In Nalanda, five monasteries are grouped in a linear fashion with temples outside the monastic complexes. In Lalmai-Mainamati, seven monasteries are clustered in an irregular pattern because of the use of the topography of the Lalmai Hill. As an immensely important centre of learning and interaction and as a vital centre in the early medieval period, Nalanda Mahavihara was contemporary to this centre. Though in textual and other sources, the Nalanda Mahavihara complex was referred to more profusely and with emphasis, this extent, heterogeneity, and connectivity of this centre in a transitional landscape and waterscape are extraordinary and unique in South Asia. The influence generated by this centre is attested more by the portable and tangible archaeological remains.

Despite the chronological differences, this property is also comparable to the Buddhist Monuments of Sanchi in Madhya Pradesh, India (2^nd century BCE-12^th century CE). Composed of stone-built stupas and monasteries, Sanchi represents the exceptional use of the arid landscape with its distinct artistic and technical form and style of North Indian religious art. Many dedicatory inscriptions and auxiliary architectural remains were found at Sanchi. The water management system of the area of Sanchi World Heritage property during the early historical period has been under study for several years. In contrast to Sanchi, the archaeological sites at Lalmai-Mainamati represent different uses of landscape and waterscape because of the difference between the landscape and climate of two regions: the southwestern part of Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna delta for Lalmai-Mainamati and the mountain range for Sanchi. Yet, the long-lasting and continuous influence these two centres of Buddhist religious traditions of different pantheons (one more Theravada and another more Mahayana-Vajrayana) propagated in their contemporary religious universe is analogous.

This property is also historically linked to and comparable with the Bagan in Myanmar. Bagan is an ensemble of Buddhist architectural remains in the central dry zone of Myanmar. This World Heritage property is associated with the Ayeyarwady river. The influence of the temple architectural style of Lalmai-Mainamati on some of the temples of Bagan is widely recognized. In contrast to Bagan, the remains of the Buddhist centre of Lalmai-Mainamati are associated with both the lower and active parts of the Meghna River and the Bay of Bengal.