The Archaeological Sites of the Kingdom of Hadramout in Shabwah

The Kingdom of Hadramawt
The Kingdom of Hadramawt was one of the ancient South Arabian states, emerging around 1020 BCE and lasting until approximately 225–230 CE. Its capital was the city of Shabwah, and its major urban centers included the port of Qanīʾ, Naqab al-Hajar, Hajar al-Barirah, and Hajar al-Binnaʾ.

The kings of Hadramawt documented their reigns on a monumental rock inscription at Mount al-‘Aqlah, known today as the Inscriptions of al-‘Aqlah. These inscriptions primarily record the coronations of Hadramite monarchs.

The Hadramites initially settled in Shabwah and expanded their influence from there, eventually controlling vast territories. They dominated the frankincense trade—at the time, one of the most valuable commodities—and exercised control over caravan routes. This dominance was achieved through strategic infrastructure, including the construction of barriers and checkpoints to channel caravans along a single route. One such route passed through Wādī al-‘Awāriḍ northeast of the port of Qanīʾ, where they built the Wall of al-Binnaʾ, a structure with a single gate through which caravans entered and exited en route to Qanīʾ. This wall, still standing today, bears a Sabaic inscription celebrating these achievements.

In addition, the Hadramites fortified other cities such as al-Barirah and Mayfaʿah with defensive walls. Besides their commercial acumen, the Hadramites invested significantly in hydraulic infrastructure: they constructed dams, dug irrigation canals to cultivate vast agricultural lands, and excavated wells. Remnants of these systems remain visible today around the cities of Naqab al-Hajar and al-Barirah. The agricultural lands surrounding the capital Shabwah extended approximately 10 kilometers toward the Ramlat al-Sab‘atayn. Some of the ancient wells still exist in and around the modern city.

Due to the significance of these ancient cities, a brief description of each will be provided, beginning with the capital, Shabwah.

The City of Shabwah
East: 47°1'29.64"
North: 15°22'9.73"

The ancient city of Shabwah, the former capital of the Kingdom of Hadramawt, is located at the western edge of Wādī Ḥaḍramawt, near the northern boundary of the limestone highlands that form the Ḥaḍramawt Plateau. It lies opposite the depression of Ramlat al-Sab‘atayn, just south of the Rub‘ al-Khali, at the confluence of the Wādī ʿArmah and Wādī al-ʿAṭf. The city is surrounded on three sides by steep, rugged mountainous terrain. The valley entrance opening into the site spans approximately six kilometers. To the north lies Ramlat al-Sab‘atayn, placing the city geographically between the desert and the mountains. It is situated atop a distinctive saline elevation within the wadi, a unique geological feature that marks the end of the valley system.

Surrounding the city on nearly all sides are remnants of ancient irrigated agricultural lands and fields, which were historically fed by water from the wadi through a system of canals and stone-built conduits. In some places, these irrigation channels are marked by carefully hewn stone slabs or by piles of stones designed to guide water into wide channels that can still be traced for several hundred meters. These hydraulic structures and agricultural installations were constructed in different historical periods, some as early as the 5th century BCE or earlier. Inscriptions carved into the stones of these channels have provided important chronological data for their construction.

Archaeological Remains of the Ancient City
The archaeological site of Shabwah lies within a triangle of hills where Wādī ʿArmah splits into two branches: Wādī al-Miʿshār to the west and Wādī Muḥabidh to the east. These two branches disappear into the northern sand dunes about ten kilometers from the site. The surrounding hills reach an elevation of approximately 50 meters.

The main settlement appears as a natural alluvial rise adjoining Jabal al-Hajar, which measures roughly 800 meters in length and 200 meters in width. The triangular hill formation encompasses three prominent ridges: the first side is approximately 900 meters long, the second 550 meters, and a prominent geological spur known as al-Ḥaqab extends for about 450 meters near the area of al-Mathnāh. This spur gradually rises toward the southwest, reaching an elevation of 750 meters and terminating in a cliff near a structure known as Ḥiṣn al-Māʾ (the Water Fortress). The western side of the triangle reaches an elevation of 747 meters, while its southeastern face overlooks the abandoned village of al-Maʿwān, where a mosque and a domed shrine dedicated to a local saint still stand.

To the northeast, Jabal Qārat al-Ḥadīdah rises gradually to a peak of 747 meters. Scattered smaller hills, collectively known as Qārat al-Fīrān, are found to the north and northeast. These hills descend steeply toward the salt flat (sabkha) and more gently toward the eastern agricultural lands, where two passageways connect the site with a triangular-shaped sabkha that still contains manually operated salt mines in use to this day.

Mentions of Shabwah and Discovery of Its Antiquities
The earliest known reference to the city of Shabwah appears in the Hebrew Bible (as Sebaṭa) in the 10th century BCE. It is later mentioned in the 3rd century BCE by Greek geographers such as Eratosthenes. The Roman author Pliny the Elder provided a vivid description of its trade activities and referred to it as Sabota, identifying it as a major center for the frankincense trade. The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, dated to the 1st century CE, describes Shabwah as the royal capital and residence of the king, noting its wealth and centrality in the incense trade.

However, the first detailed description of the ruins of Shabwah appears in Islamic Arabic sources, particularly in the 10th century writings of al-Hamdānī, who documented the Arab tribes that once inhabited the city and their genealogies.

For a long time, the site remained largely unknown to European scholars until 1935, when H. von Helfritz visited and photographed the ruins. In 1936, H. St. J. B. Philby conducted a survey and produced the first site plan. Two years later, R. B. Hamilton carried out a limited archaeological excavation in one of the ancient buildings.

Between 1964 and 1966, Yemeni archaeologist Muhammad ʿAbd al-Qādir Bāfaqīyah visited the city and the rock inscriptions on Jabal al-ʿAqlah. He studied and published these inscriptions in 1967 under the title Inscriptions and Antiquities of al-ʿAqlah (Cairo).

Finally, in late 1974, the first systematic archaeological excavation season began under the direction of the French Archaeological Mission led by J. Pirenne and later by J.-F. Breton in 1978. The mission conducted fieldwork continuously from 1974 to 1987 during the first phase. From 1995 onward, the mission resumed periodic excavations and studies aimed at publication, continuing until 2002.

Qanāʾ Port
East: 48°19'31.46"
North: 14°0'31.43"

The ancient port of Qanāʾ is located on the southern coast of the Arabian Peninsula, along the Arabian Sea (Indian Ocean), in Shabwah Governorate, Republic of Yemen—approximately 500 kilometers east of Aden and 120 kilometers west of Mukallā.

Qanāʾ was one of the most significant ports in ancient Arabia and the broader ancient world. It served as the primary incense port on the Arabian Peninsula for centuries and played a crucial role in both regional and international trade. Historically, it was the principal maritime outlet of the Kingdom of Hadramawt. The port’s long history and global fame were closely linked to its export of highly valued Yemeni goods—chiefly frankincense and myrrh.

In addition to its role as a hub for these exports, Qanāʾ functioned as a vital transit point in the ancient trade networks connecting Red Sea ports, East Africa, and India. This made it a key node in both import and export activities involving goods from various regions across the ancient world.

The Inscription of Ḥiṣn al-Ghurāb (CIH 621)
This inscription is carved at the summit of the mountain overlooking Qanāʾ Port and dates to the year 525 CE. It records the resounding defeat of King Yūsuf Asʾar Yathʾar (known in tradition as Dhū Nuwās) in that same year. The text mentions that Sumayfaʿ Ashwaʿ and others fortified themselves in the stronghold of Ḥiṣn al-Ghurāb, which commands a view over Qanāʾ. It further notes that Sumayfaʿ and his companions undertook the restoration and repair of the mountain-top installations—identified as walls, gates, water cisterns carved into the rock, and stone-paved pathways ascending the mountain—aimed at defending the last remaining strongholds of Hadramawt at Qanāʾ. The inscription also makes the third known mention of Wādī Jirdān as part of the territory affiliated with the Yazanid rulers.

Naqb al-Hajar – Wādī Mayfaʿah
North: 14°19'9.47"
East: 47°29'59.75"

Naqb al-Hajar is the archaeological site associated with the ancient city referred to in inscriptions as Mayfaʿt (M Y F ʿ T). This ancient settlement is located along Wādī Mayfaʿah, overseeing the confluence of Wādī Ḥabān and Wādī ʿAmāqīn, which together form Wādī Mayfaʿah.

The city occupies a high promontory overlooking expansive agricultural lands to its north, east, and south. The ruins are dispersed across the summit of an archaeological tell. The city was once enclosed by a substantial defensive wall constructed from large, finely cut stones. Integrated into this wall were a number of defensive towers—approximately 35 in total. The city had two main gates: one on the northern side and the other on the southern perimeter. Remarkably, one of these gates, along with sections of the wall, is still visible today.

Hajar al-Barīrah – Wādī Jirdān
North: 14°56'28.76"
East: 46°58'59.44"

The ancient city of Barīrah is one of the oldest known urban centers in southern Arabia and one of the most prominent archaeological sites in Wādī Jirdān. It is located on the northern bank of Wādī Jirdān, between the wadi’s main course and the right tributary of Wādī Rīshah.

Barīrah served as a vital trade station and played a major role in both domestic and international trade during the Hadramawt Kingdom’s era. The site has attracted the attention of several explorers and historians. In 1952, Van Wissmann visited the site and documented a number of inscriptions, pottery fragments, and 66 ancient coins. Between 1964 and 1966, B. Doe conducted a detailed survey of the city's ruins. He noted that Wādī Jirdān is particularly rich in archaeological remains.

Advanced Stone Construction Techniques
The use of carefully cut building stones sourced from surrounding mountains, each marked for its designated position, reflects an exceptional level of architectural planning and technical skill in construction.

Natural and Engineered Defenses
Hadramawt cities demonstrate strategic urban planning through the use of natural terrain and the construction of fortified walls, towers, and defensible gateways, indicating a highly developed understanding of military architecture and site selection.

Hydraulic and Infrastructure Mastery
Great attention was given to building paved roads, dams, canals, and rock-cut water cisterns, ensuring reliable water supply even at mountain summits. The construction of lighthouses for maritime navigation, street-facing temples, palaces, organized street grids, incense storage depots, and the use of timber and mudbrick to seal structural voids reflect a sophisticated urban infrastructure.

Economic Specialization and Resource Exploitation
The exploitation of nearby rock-salt mines, located adjacent to the city walls, provided a valuable commodity that enhanced the city’s economic role and enabled its integration into ancient trade networks.

Criterion (iii): The cities of the Hadramawt Kingdom cities provide outstanding testimony to a once-thriving civilization, as evidenced by their locations, fortified structures, monumental gateways, and impressively built defensive walls.

criterion (iv):The standing architectural remains exhibit remarkable engineering ingenuity, as reflected in the urban street layouts, palaces, and temples, as well as the use of timber as a principal material in constructing walls and roofing systems.

The cities of the Hadramawt Kingdom were established in a sequential manner along major trade routes, and were strategically located to serve shared economic interests. Their chronological and spatial proximity indicates coordinated development during closely related historical periods.

The cities of the Hadramawt Kingdom, in terms of design and location along ancient trade routes, are a sequence of archaeological urban centers that have preserved their original architectural and urban planning features. These cities retain their internal components and reflect a coherent model of caravan cities in ancient Yemen. They functioned simultaneously as residential hubs for local merchants and as major waystations for long-distance trade caravans.

Most of the essential elements of these cities remain intact and continue to convey the historical and artistic value of the sites. Despite periods of neglect in recent history, these urban centers have retained the key attributes that express their Outstanding Universal Value. The royal palace of Shuqr, for example, still stands, as do the rock-cut water cisterns atop the fortress mountain of Hisn al-Ghurab. In addition, temples, public squares, streets, the towers of Mayfa‘ah, and the stone-paved quays of Qanā’ port remain visible and largely preserved, demonstrating the physical integrity of these heritage sites.