The Archaeological Remains and Water Management Systems Himyar Kingdom in Dhafar

1. Dhafar City

Site Coordinates (UTM): 14°12'41"N, 44°24'17"E

Dhafar (Ẓafār) was the first capital of a unified Yemen, serving as the seat of the Himyarite Kingdom from around 650 BCE. This powerful polity succeeded in unifying much of Yemen and large portions of the Arabian Peninsula under the title “Kingdom of Saba’, Dhu Raydan, Hadramawt, and Yamnat and their Arabs.” Dhafar is a serial archaeological property composed of multiple heritage elements, most notably the capital itself, which lies approximately 30 km east of the modern city of Yarim.

Situated atop a high plateau, Dhafar overlooks fertile agricultural valleys on three sides: Wadi Lahaf and Qa‘ al-Haql to the west, Wadi Dhafar and Wadi al-‘Arafah to the east, and Wadi Haddat Ghalis to the north. This strategic location indicates that Dhafar’s urban development was integrally linked to agriculture, supported by the construction of dams and water management systems.

The city features several major archaeological sites, including the remains of the ancient palace of Raydan and the Temple of Raydan, discovered in recent years by the joint Yemeni-German archaeological mission. Located at the western entrance of the Raydan palace complex, the temple remains intact, with many of its features preserved in situ. Excavation work has been limited due to instability in the country since 2011, and large sections of the palace and temple remain buried.

Numerous structures carved into the surrounding rock outcrops include tombs (both elite and common), military installations, and civic facilities such as the Night Market, horse stables, and the so-called “Prison of As‘ad al-Kamil.” The surrounding area also features a series of rock-hewn dams and cisterns, such as al-Rahda Dam to the west of Dhafar, al-Bayyadah Dam 3 km southeast of the city in Jabal al-Bayyadah, and enclosed water reservoirs such as the ‘Awar, Dinnan, and al-Siniyah cisterns—some of which continue to store potable water to this day. Open reservoirs are still used for irrigation and watering livestock, while enclosed systems have been traditionally used for drinking water storage.

Dhafar also houses a modest but historically significant museum—one of the first purpose-built museum structures in Yemen. Constructed in the 1970s at the entrance to the ancient city, it contains over 5,000 artifacts, most of which are intact and on display or in storage. These objects document the civilization and royal legacy of the Himyarite Kingdom.

2. Archaeological Sites and Rock-Cut Tombs

1. Jabal al-‘Usbi: 14°12'45"N, 44°24'32"E
2. Jabal Hadman: 14°13'22"N, 44°24'31"E
3. Jabal Khadri: 14°13'55"N, 44°25'37"E
4. Jabal Shammar Yuhar‘ish: 14°12'52"N, 44°25'45"E
5. Jabal al-Haqlayn: 14°11'41"N, 44°27'23"E
6. Jabal al-‘Usaybiyah: 14°12'36"N, 44°27'08"E (site of a royal tomb)

The area surrounding Dhafar is home to several mountains containing archaeological sites and burial chambers. Some, such as Jabal Shammar Yuhar‘ish—named after a Himyarite king—are believed to house royal tombs. This hypothesis was substantiated with the discovery of an intact and fully preserved royal tomb at Jabal al-‘Usaybiyah, located 5 km east of Dhafar. This tomb, carved into the rock, includes a doorway that opens into an 8-meter-deep burial chamber. The chamber is rectangular and contained a sarcophagus along with various burial goods.

3. Ancient Stone-Built Dams and Hydraulic Structures

1. Hararah Dam: 14°12'06"N, 44°25'39"E
2. Dhi Lah al-Bab Cistern: 14°11'38"N, 44°25'24"E
3. al-Sha‘bani Dam (Ma‘jal al-Sha‘bani): 14°12'38"N, 44°25'03"E

Model Example: al-Sha‘bani Dam

Site Coordinates (UTM): 14°12'38"N, 44°25'03"E

Al-Sha‘bani Dam, also known as Ma‘jal al-Sha‘bani, is one of the oldest surviving hydraulic structures from the early Himyarite period. Constructed entirely of stone, the dam has a storage capacity of approximately 240,000 cubic meters. It comprises three parallel stone walls, each 10 meters high, with 1.5-meter spaces between them filled with a compacted mix of earth and stone.

The dam has a single outlet that feeds an irrigation channel (sāqiyah), which provides water to the valleys of al-Ak‘ami and al-Madiyyah, eventually flowing to the stream of Dhi Arsam near the village of al-Kharabah, covering a distance of 2.5 km. This channel branches into both open-air and subterranean conduits.

Remarkably, al-Sha‘bani Dam remains intact and fully functional, continuing to irrigate agricultural fields to this day. Other Himyarite dams in the Dhafar region operate using the same principles and serve as representative examples of early hydraulic engineering in South Arabia.

The site of Dhafar, capital of the Himyarite Kingdom, forms an integral part of Yemen’s cultural heritage, exemplifying the ingenuity of ancient Yemeni civilization in adapting to a harsh natural environment. This is most evident in the sophisticated hydraulic systems developed to harvest and store rainwater, including both rock-hewn cisterns and stone-built dams in seasonal riverbeds, which were crucial for sustaining agriculture.

The site possesses exceptional universal value as it represents the last powerful indigenous state to rule over Yemen for several centuries. It was the only polity to extend its authority over most of the Arabian Peninsula and played a central role in controlling both maritime and overland trade routes connecting the East and West.

The cultural landscape of Dhafar retains a high degree of authenticity, with major components such as the Raydan Temple, ancient dams, and various civil and hydraulic rock-cut installations remaining intact. Many of these features are still functioning today, preserving their original form and use without significant alteration or degradation.

Dhafar Himyar is distinguished by the presence of monumental royal rock-cut tombs, notably the discovery of a fully intact royal tomb in Jabal al-‘Usaybiyah, east of Dhafar in the village of al-Dathiyah. This tomb bears strong architectural and symbolic resemblance to the royal burial traditions of ancient Egypt, highlighting cross-cultural parallels in elite funerary practices.

Both the State Party and the local community are strongly committed to the conservation and protection of the site. Legal frameworks and specialized judicial and administrative bodies have been established since the 1970s to ensure site safeguarding. Community involvement remains central to site management, reflecting a shared sense of stewardship and cultural pride.

Criterion (iii): The archaeological remains and monumental features of the Himyarite Kingdom in Dhafar and its surrounding areas bear exceptional testimony to a vanished civilization that flourished for several centuries. Many of the rock-cut or constructed hydraulic installations remain functional to this day, serving as enduring evidence of the technological and cultural sophistication of the Himyarite era.

Criterion (iv): The cultural landscape and irrigation systems of Dhafar and its surroundings present an outstanding example of architectural and engineering practices that reflect the historical period of the Himyarite Kingdom. These include the construction of temples, palaces, and rock-hewn structures in mountainous terrain, such as water installations, residences, and funerary complexes. Notably, the area contains over eighty ancient dams, as attested by Himyaritic inscriptions. Many of these dams, including Sha‘bani Dam, Hararah Dam, and Dhi Lah al-Bab Dam, are still operational, demonstrating the exceptional precision and craftsmanship of Himyarite builders.

Criterion (v): The cultural landscape, comprising agricultural terraces, irrigation fields, and water management systems, exemplifies the Himyarite people's remarkable adaptation to an environment with no perennial water sources. Relying solely on seasonal rainfall, they developed a comprehensive system of rainwater harvesting, including dams and canals, enabling the irrigation of vast agricultural lands across valleys and mountainsides. Without such infrastructure, habitation and agricultural activity in the region would have been impossible.

The Himyarite remains in Dhafar retain a high level of authenticity. Most archaeological features, including tombs and temples, remain in their original state, with ongoing excavations revealing untouched contexts. For instance, the Raydan Temple preserves its full architectural and sculptural elements, including carved stone facades and statues. Similarly, both exposed and subterranean rock-cut dams, as well as built structures like the Sha‘bani Dam—located 1,631 meters east of Dhafar—are intact and still fulfill their ancient water management functions. The Dhafar Museum, established in the 1970s, houses thousands of documented and conserved artifacts, including the contents of the recently discovered royal tomb in al-‘Usaybiyah.

The cultural landscape and water management infrastructure in Himyarite Dhafar remain largely intact. As most of the hydraulic and architectural features were carved into rock, they have endured through centuries with minimal damage. These elements—including cisterns, channels, dams, civil buildings, and agricultural terraces—continue to perform their intended functions. The long-standing care taken by local communities has ensured their preservation, recognizing these structures as essential for survival and agriculture.

The cultural and historical landscape of the Himyarite Kingdom in Dhafar is legally protected under the Yemeni Antiquities Law and the Historic Cities Law No. 16 of 2013. The site is administratively managed by the General Authority for Antiquities (Ibb Branch). Following the discovery of the royal tomb in al-‘Usaybiyah, a localized protection plan was implemented, recruiting 30 local guards to safeguard Dhafar and its surrounding sites from looting and vandalism. The Antiquities Prosecution and Security Department of Ibb are the legal authorities responsible for enforcing site protection and prosecuting violators. Management responsibilities are distributed among cultural, heritage, and local governance bodies, as outlined by national legislation. Water systems and irrigation structures are also preserved by the local population, as they are integral to agricultural life and community well-being.