The Cities and Landmarks of Ma’in Old Kingdom

The "Cities and Landmarks of the Ancient Kingdom of Ma’in" represent some of Yemen’s most significant archaeological heritage. These cities formed a cohesive cultural unit of an ancient kingdom that emerged in northern Yemen, primarily in Al-Jawf Governorate, and based its economy on agriculture and trade.

Agriculture was a foundational component of the Ma’in Kingdom’s development, flourishing along the Wadi Kharid and Wadi Majzar, in a transitional zone between the desert sands and the mountainous highlands. These areas rank among the most fertile archaeological regions in ancient Yemen.

The second economic pillar was trade, for which Ma’in was widely renowned. The Kingdom maintained commercial colonies in the northern Arabian Peninsula at sites such as Al-‘Ula and Qaryat al-Faw in central Arabia. This is well documented through inscriptions unique to the Ma’in Kingdom. Their trade networks extended beyond Arabia to ancient Egypt, the Levant, Mesopotamia, and even Greece, highlighting the kingdom’s prominence in long-distance commerce.

A series of ancient cities were founded throughout the Ma’in Kingdom, stretching from south to north. These include the capital Qarnāwu (Old Ma’in), and Barāqish to the south, followed by Kamna to the west, Nashaq (Al-Bayda), Nashan (Al-Sawda), and other key landmarks such as Darb al-Sabi and Al-Asahil.

The most prominent of these cities were Qarnāwu (the capital), Yathil (Barāqish), Nashan (Al-Sawda), and Nashaq (Al-Bayda). The region also contains major religious monuments, including the Temple of Banāt ‘Ād in Qarnāwu and the Temple of Nakrah in Yathil, alongside numerous ancient irrigation structures which supported Ma’in’s urban centers.

These cities functioned as a federal unit under a unified political structure, maintaining local economic independence while cooperating in collective defense against external threats. The Kingdom of Ma’in is considered a cornerstone in the heritage of ancient Yemen.

The historical value of the Ma’in Kingdom is a fundamental aspect of its significance. It is mentioned in inscriptions dating back to the end of the second millennium and the beginning of the first millennium BCE and maintained extensive connections with ancient civilizations both within and beyond the Arabian Peninsula.

Economically, Ma’in was a key facilitator of trans-Arabian trade, specializing in the protection and management of commercial caravans that transported valuable goods across the Arabian Peninsula.

Socially and politically, the Kingdom stands out as one of the earliest examples of a federal city-state system in the ancient world. Each city managed its own resources while forming alliances for mutual defense. The tribal leadership, notably that of the Yam tribe, played a pivotal role in managing trade and political affairs within the Kingdom.

Criterion (iii): The cities and landmarks of the Kingdom of Ma’in are exceptional testimonies to a vanished civilization that endured for over 1,500 years, from the early first millennium BCE to the 6th century CE. Their influence waxed and waned in response to changing economic and political conditions, leaving behind remarkable archaeological and historical legacies.

Criterion (iv): The Kingdom is notable for its architectural heritage, particularly in roofing techniques using large stone slabs and finely engineered masonry. These construction methods have endured for nearly three millennia, as exemplified by structures such as the Gate of Qarnāwu (the capital), the city walls of Barāqish, and the stone-ceiling architecture of the Temple of Banāt ‘Ād.

Material and Components of the Cities and Sites

The materials used in the construction of the cities and landmarks of the Kingdom of Maʿin represent some of the earliest locally sourced building substances employed by humans since the beginning of the first millennium BCE. These materials—primarily interconnected limestone blocks—demonstrate a high level of technical sophistication in terms of quarrying, transport, and architectural application. Remarkably, many of these structures remain in good condition, attesting to a deeply rooted architectural tradition at the site.

In addition to their architectural significance, the areas surrounding the cities and landmarks of Maʿin comprise agricultural zones that reflect the long-standing continuity of settlement in these locations from their inception to the present day. These agricultural areas also formed a fundamental economic pillar supporting the establishment and sustainability of these cities from their earliest phases.

Furthermore, while these cities reflect an extended period of architectural development, they also served as major centers for the assembly, departure, and protection of trade caravans coming from the south and southeast of the Arabian Peninsula. Beyond their economic functions, these cities operated as hubs for trade exchange, management, and security in the ancient world. They also contained religious structures, including ancient pagan temples, reflecting their multifaceted role in the sociocultural and religious landscape of the Kingdom of Maʿin.

Physical Location and Integrity of the Cities and Landmarks

The cities of the Kingdom of Ma’in are closely associated with nearby agricultural activity, which continues to this day due to the exceptional fertility of the ancient lands along the Wadi Al-Jawf, Wadi Al-Kharid, and Wadi Majzar. These ancient cities are considered among the most important in the history of early Arabia. Due to their relative isolation, however, many of the sites have experienced damage and destruction over time.

Despite this, approximately 50% of their architectural features remain intact, bearing witness to the enduring grandeur of a kingdom that flourished from the first millennium BCE until the first century CE. These cities continued under Sabaean control during the pre-Islamic period. Notably, the city of Barāqish (Yathil) maintained its urban function as an Islamic settlement from the 6th century AH (12th century CE) through the 13th century AH (19th century CE). This longevity reflects the continuity of settlement and the sustained relevance of trade and agriculture based on regulated irrigation, particularly in the Al-Jawf region and around Barāqish in Majzar, Ma’rib.