Failaka Island: A Palimpsest of Human Civilizations

Failaka Island is located in the northwestern end of the Gulf where Kuwait Bay meets Bubiyan Island, to the west of the mouth of the Shatt al-Arab river, formed by the confluence of the Tigris and Euphrates. The island is 14 km long, approximately 6 km wide, and covers 4,650 hectares. The landscape topography features a low plain with a maximum elevation of 7 meters. It is predominantly semi-arid and is characterized by flat depressions that retain water, facilitating the formation of sabkha-like setting. Failaka’s twentieth-century urban fabric is concentrated in the village known as Al-Zor, which stands on the southwestern part of the island, approximately 20 km away from Kuwait City on the mainland. Traces of human settlements in Failaka span from the 3^rd millennium BC until present days and are generally outlined below. According to statistics, the population of Failaka numbered around 1500 inhabitants in the 1930s, while in 1985, it was more than 5800. Following the Gulf War in 1990, the island was evacuated. Now, it hosts a few dozens of people.

BRONZE AGE SITES

Tell Sa‛ad (F3)

Tell Sa‛ad is a high artificial hill located in the southwestern portion of the island bordering the south coast above which, in the 20^th century AD, has been erected Shaikh Ahmed Al Jaber Rest House. Dating from the Dilmun period, it contains the remains of a temple-courtyard, a warehouse, houses, kilns.

Tell F6

Dating from the Dilmun period and probably belonging to the same settlement as Tell Sa‛ad even if located 370 m north-east, Tell F6 assembles a huge administrative building associated to food production, with two temples, one with a square plan and another newly uncovered with a huge platform.

Al-Khidr

On the northwestern tip of the island the site of Al-Khidr is the possible location of a Bronze Age harbour, now clogged with silt. The bay was densely surrounded by buildings, probably fishermen’s houses, during Early and Middle Dilmun periods. In the Early Dilmun period, these buildings were mainly rectangular in plan while Middle Dilmun period houses were oval in plan.

Al-Awazim

On the northeastern coast are Early Bronze Age burial pits lined with standing beach rock slabs, or tumuli. Several kilns as well as sites linked to fishing are located in the area.

ACHAEMENID AND HELLENISTIC SITES

Tell Khazneh

Tell Khazneh, located to the southwest and inland, is a small building dating to the Achaemenian period, circa 5^th century BC. Stones from this building were reused in a new one dating to the end of the 4^th century BC. Many terracotta figurines uncovered from these Achaemenid and Hellenistic layers testify to the religious character of the sanctuary through these periods. Silver coins from Alexander the Great and from Macedonian kings were also found here.

Fortress (Tell Sa‛id)

Tell Sa‛id, 600 m south-east of Tell Khazneh and bordering the sea, is a Hellenistic fortress dating to the very beginning of the 3^rd century BC and containing five different periods of occupation ending in the 1^st century BC. In addition to its strong military character, the fortress includes both evidence of habitation and two temples. Temple A is typical of Greek religious architecture, yet columns contain Ionian capitals and Persian bases symbolizing the identity of the Hellenistic civilizations. Temple B is more influenced by Oriental styles in plan but contains architectural decoration inspired by Greek design. Both have altars, rectangular for Temple A and circular for Temple B.

“Terracotta workshop” / Dar Al-Deyafa

Two hundred meters southwest of the Hellenistic fortress is Dar Al-Deyafa, a small tell close to the shoreline near Tell Sa‛ad. The building, dating from the 2^nd century BC, revealed several terracotta molds and a few figurines.

Artemis Sanctuary

Three hundred forty meters southeast of the fortress along the shoreline is a small sanctuary with a two-room structure and yard with evidence of ritual activities suggesting a cult dedicated to Artemis dating to the 2^nd c. BC. This building is currently under immediate risk and partially underwater.

Late Hellenistic settlements

On the northwest part of the island is the site of Al-Qurainiyah. The occupation is found below an Early Medieval village and consists of a series of pole structures dating between the 1^st c. BC and the 2^nd c. AD, possibly during the occupation of the Characene kingdom. The same kind of remains exist above Al-Khidr, dating between the 1^st c. BC and the 4^st c. AD.

MEDIEVAL SITES

Al-Qusur monastery and village

At the beginning of Islam, a Christian monastery dating to the 7^th-8^th centuries existed in the center of the island. Two successive churches, a refectory, and buildings dedicated to the production of food (date molasses) have been excavated. Numerous courtyard houses with plastered floors were scattered throughout the monastery. Drains were uncovered at the site.

Al-Qurainiyah

Al-Qurainiyah, located on the northern shoreline of the island, contains a fishing village from the Early Islamic period (7^th-8^th c.) linked with Al-Qusur, of which it was probably the port outlet, and a town from the Late Islamic period (second half of 18^th c. – first decades of 20^th c.).

MODERN SITES

The “Portuguese forts”

Remains of forts dating back to the 18^th century have been found in Failaka, one in the ancient village of Al-Zor, the other on the north coast, east of Al-Qurainiyah. Oral history has handed down the name of “Portuguese” forts, but archaeological research has confuted this attribution. They are similar in plan and contain circular towers, indicative of fortification. One dating from 18th c., they were most probably used to protect Al-Qurainiyah, Al-Zor, Al-Saida and Kharaib Ad-Desht inhabitants in case of danger.

Sites along the northeast coast

Many sites along the northeast coast consist of Late Islamic seasonal settlements, probably connected to fishing, stock‐farming and agriculture. These sites are divided into two chronological phases: one from the 17^th to 18^th century and the other from the 19^th to the first half of the 20^th century. In 2018, studies concentrated on the water collection systems within these settlements. Excavations indicate that there were two kinds of well structures, shallow filtration well pits and deep wells used for collecting rainwater.

Al-Sa‛ida

Located immediately south of Al-Khidr, it is an early and Late Islamic periods site known as the village of Al-Sa‛ida. The modern village was founded at the end of the 17^th c. and lasted until the 19^th c. The settlement left the remains of buildings, including a large mosque with prayer hall and walled courtyard, that form small hills of the site. 

Kharaib al-Desht

Kharaib al-Desht is a fishing village containing both residential architecture and fish ovens dating from the late 17^th until the late 19^th century.

Sites along the southeast coast

Al-Sabahyah, an extensive settlement from the Late Islamic period, is known for its nearby oasis which was visible from ships approaching the island. This site is characterized by rows of small chambers adjoining the sides of a building with a central courtyard. Um al-Dakhan, located near Al-Sabahyah consists of fishing huts.

Sheikh Ahmad Al Jaber Summer House

The rest house of the Sheikh Ahmad al-Jaber dates to 1927 and rests on the top of the Bronze Age Tell. With its four internal passages creating a cross, with four gates leading to the central hall and without courtyard, it stands out from traditional local architecture.

Cemeteries

At least four modern cemeteries exist. One between Al-Qurainiyah and Kharaib al-Desht, one west of Kharaib al-Desht, one immediately west of Al-Saida and the last, north the old part of Al-Zor.

Al-Zor

Al-Zor lies in the middle of the west side of the island and first existed as a village in the 18^th century. During this time houses were still made of mud bricks. It gradually extended and in the 20^th century it became a small town containing the notable palace of the Sheikh Abdullah Al-Salim Al-Sabah, today the Heritage Museum. In the 1950s and 1970s-1980s, urban programs appeared and in 1954 the school (containing classrooms, gymnasium, and a performance hall) was constructed. Another contemporary building program resulted in two large buildings (probably for the school staff), a dispensary, and a water tower (today included in the Heritage village).

Despite suffering from abandonment and war damage, the entire ensemble retains a remarkable coherence and integrity, reflecting the urban development of the second half of the 20^th century. In the 1960s, the southeastern area was urbanized with villas, which share many common features such as layout, size, and materials, creating a strong sense of homogeneity. Some villas, however, stand out with their own architectural designs.

The urban fabric was later expanded through three major developments. First, a large resort complex was constructed on the southern shore. Second, a terraced housing complex was built south of Al-Zor – the old village – likely in the late 1970s or early 1980s. Third, the Kureyat complex was established along the western coast, north of the Al-Zor administrative centre.

Throughout the 20^th century, various infrastructural, administrative, technical, commercial, and public buildings were added between these housing areas. Notable examples include the electricity station, water towers, a second school complex, the fish market, and the National Bank. These constructions witness that in the second half of 20^th century Failaka was subject to population dynamics that significantly increased the number of inhabitants, as shown by official statistics. While some Failakawi families started to resettle to the mainland in the 1950s, new settlers moved to the island from other parts of Kuwait and from abroad, attracted by the availability of housing and infrastructure.

1990 WAR TESTIMONIES

In 1990, the Gulf War destroyed much of Al-Zor and all inhabitants left the island. Al-Zor remained abandoned for some time, after which some former inhabitants returned if only for weekends. In the 21^st century, the Heritage Village has been built in the central part of the town.

War Museum

An open-air museum containing tanks and parts of military equipment is located in the northwestern area of the island.

Failaka is an outstanding example of cultural landscape situated on an island of the Gulf, in a strategic position that witnesses cultural exchanges with the network of other islands and the continent. With its geological and geomorphological features, Failaka encapsulates layers of human settlements, evidence of movements of people, and the persistence of traditional rituals, beliefs and practices over a period of about 4000 years. The outstanding concentration of archaeological sites on a relatively small island clearly and fully illustrates historic settlement patterns, together with space organization and interrelation with the environment in an insular context. The activity of at least sixteen national and international archaeological missions (from nine countries) since 1958 until today brings light to the scientific value of the sites.

The availability of water and fertile soil on the island explains the continuity of agricultural and pastoral traditions and practices throughout time, as it could have led the inhabitants to self-sufficiency. The presence of fresh groundwater is documented by Bronze Age and Hellenistic wells, drains in the Early Islamic period, and Late Islamic filtration systems. Evidence of agricultural practices is found in inscriptions (in particular in the “Ikadion” inscription, dating back to the 2^nd century BC), in remains of buildings for production of dates molasses, seeds, and land use patterns. In this respect, the cultural landscape of Failaka offers a unique opportunity to add to our understanding of numerous layers of civilization.

Historically, freshwater added value to Failaka’s strategic positioning at the crossroads of commercial routes between Mesopotamia and the Gulf, making it a crucial stopover for maritime traffic and a strategic node for trade control. Numerous torpedo jars attest to dense maritime circulation of organic materials (food) throughout nearly all periods. Warehouses, temples, large administrative buildings and houses dating back to the Bronze Age testify to the importance of Failaka settlements in the geographical distribution of Dilmun and Mesopotamian civilisations across the eastern part of the Arabian Peninsula.

Failaka Island stood on the edge of the Greek/Hellenistic Empire. Written sources indicate that explorers sent by Alexander the Great to discover the Arabian coastline of the Gulf found two islands. One of these was Failaka, that Alexander ordered to name as “Ikaros”, and the other was Bahrain, which was named as “Tylos”. Ikaros was described by the explorers as covered with rich vegetation and a shelter for numerous wild animals, considered sacred by the inhabitants who dedicated them to their local deities.

Failaka/Ikaros was an important centre and harbour for the Seleucid Kingdom and is the only standing example of a Greek stronghold in the whole Gulf with typical fortifications adapted to Hellenistic war strategies and techniques. The design of the sanctuaries testifies the encounter between Hellenistic and Oriental cultures. Architectural forms and decoration, terracotta figurines, Arab Greek coins, combining Greek and oriental styles and motifs, are the evidence of interchanges and testify the circulation of ideas and craftsmanship traditions. Today, ionic capitals and acroteria are part of the national identity, used as symbols of Kuwaiti heritage.

A Christian monastery with two churches and other buildings for agricultural food processing were unearthed in Al-Qusur. The extension of the sites and their vitality in the island express the presence of a flourishing Christian community in the region. At the same time, vestiges excavated at Al-Qurainiyah add to the understanding of fishing activity and trade networks along the Gulf from the Early to the Late Islamic periods.

Failaka Island presents a coherent urban ensemble from the second half of the 20^th century, with high architectural quality. The elements from each period – ranging from the 1950s, reflecting the commitments of the welfare state, to the 1980s with qualitative investments in tourism development, as well as the evolution of housing throughout this period – tell the story of the evolution of the Kuwaiti society and, more broadly, the trajectory of the Gulf countries.

The evacuation of Failaka in 1990 due to the Gulf War abruptly stopped the daily life on the island. Abandoned buildings, now in decay and especially concentrated in and around Al-Zor village, provide a rich repertoire of building materials, construction techniques, and architectural styles from the 1950s to the end of the 1980s.

This abandonment, albeit traumatizing, has resulted in the protection of Failaka Island from further development that could have impacted existing urban fabric, the island’s landscape and natural environment, as well as the archaeological areas. Notably, the twentieth-century displacement of people did not cut the bond to the island of the former inhabitants, and people from Failaka still retain a close attachment, often returning to the island and keeping social connections and traditions alive.

Together, these tangible and intangible assets offer an outstanding overview on the life in Failaka, provide information on agricultural practices and the use of natural resources (such as water), the development of belief systems through time, and the general movements of people and goods through a network of maritime and terrestrial routes.

Criterion (ii): Failaka Island is an outstanding example of interaction between cultures as exhibited by imported ceramics found in all archaeological sites, of religious devotions to deities from different regions and of Hellenistic temples exhibiting both Greek and Oriental architectural styles. The presence of four harbours (one of which is said to be the oldest in the region) on a relatively small island such as Failaka demonstrates its importance and its connection to the broader region. Other archaeological finds and settlement patterns are evidence of the diverse sociocultural environment, of the interchange of Failaka with other islands and places, and of its integration into continental empires or kingdoms to which they associated with.

Criterion (v): Failaka Island’s landscape, characterized by its enabling features, stand as an outstanding and rare example of a well-preserved cultural landscape in the Gulf, which demonstrates 4000 years of human settlement and of interrelation between man and nature on an island rich in freshwater and fertile soil. The people of Failaka demonstrated a profound understanding of the island’s natural features. Wells, landforms, and infrastructure supporting agricultural practice and fishing activity document daily community life throughout multiple civilisations and periods, expressing a local responsiveness to the natural environment, with its constraints and opportunities, and the holistic character of the settlements.

Criterion (vi):Failaka Island is an eloquent testimony to a strong and continuing cultural tradition and daily community life on a small island, that endured through time. This community life on the island came to an end due to the Gulf War in the early 1990s, an event that is still engraved in the collective memory. Even if the population was evacuated, the former inhabitants of Failaka and the Kuwaitis have preserved deep bonds with their homeland and their traditions. These events have strongly marked Failaka’s landscape, urban development was frozen thus contributing to the preservation of the special character of the island, with its open spaces which inspire a sense of isolation. The high number of temples, churches and pilgrimage routes, as well as the traditional customs, practices and legends suggest that the landscape of Failaka Island has also embodied holy values throughout its history. 

Authenticity

The island landscape of Failaka has been relatively well-preserved due to location, and abandonment in the twentieth century. The natural “buffer zone” provided by the marine setting has protected the island from the urban development that defines Kuwait City. Moreover, the depopulation caused by the 1990s Gulf War left Failaka frozen in time.

As a cultural landscape, Failaka Island exhibits several archaeological layers from the Bronze Age to modern times. Remnants of various building types for defensive and religious purposes as well as structures for agricultural practice, fishing and trading illustrate how people of different civilisations lived in an insular environment and interacted with other cultures. The most recent layer of Al-Zor is the evidence of how the 20^th century state of Kuwait planned and implemented an urban and architectural programme, to provide the islanders with the same opportunities of the people living on the mainland, in terms of housing and infrastructures.

The individual elements of the cultural landscape vary in their condition and state of preservation; most exist as archaeological sites. Each component, whether fortification, spiritual space, or port remnant is an asset within a larger historical context. Each element shares a high degree of authenticity either in material or design and each retains attributes that reflect their original form or changes over time.

The use of the island for military training, which started with the 1990 war, continues and has affected modern architecture in Al-Zor village and its surroundings. Building structures and facades of the 20^th century were and are the target of military activity and bullet holes are visible in the built fabric. Nevertheless, the urban fabric and the architectural forms, materials and building techniques are fully legible and the town can be regenerated, in line with the conservation principles and strategy that are being developed under the leadership of National Council for Culture, Arts & Letters.

The 1990s evacuation of people interrupted the daily life of Failaka. However, the island is not fully abandoned as a group of people live there. These inhabitants include staff of local public administration offices, workers in the hotel and other visitor services, as well as employees of archaeological missions and former residents (mostly) who return on a regular basis, especially weekends. Ferry services are available, but visitors could also use private boats. In this respect, authenticity of function may be considered high, despite depopulation and the presence of military target practice. The returning Failaka diaspora and people from Kuwait who establish camps on the island during vacations, maintain a strong attachment to the island inspiring a sense of belonging, a witness to authenticity of spirit and feeling.

Integrity

Failaka Island encompasses many legible archaeological layers that illuminate 4000 years of human occupation, from the Bronze Age to the present times. These archaeological remains, together with the island landscape, testify to the interaction of various civilizations that settled on the island with the sea environment as well as with other parts of the world through maritime trade.

The abandonment of the island in 1990 has contributed to the preservation of the rich concentration of archaeological finds and inscriptions. Despite destruction, perpetuated even in the National Museum during the Gulf War, most of the artefacts, the Hellenistic temple, architectural decoration as well as the great Ikadion’s inscription, have been restored. Thus, the relationship between the changing environmental setting and cultural remains demonstrates a high degree of integrity and can be meaningfully interpreted.

Rising sea levels cause soil erosion during high tides, threatening archaeological sites located along the coast. Furthermore, the formation of silt in historic and modern harbours affects Failaka Island. Both archaeological remains and historic fishing traditions are noticeably impacted by climate change. Garbage deposits, mainly from ruins after the 1990 war, affect the appearance of three areas of the island.