Serial nomination of Coastal Fortifications along the Konkan Coast, Maharashtra

Description

No.	Name of Components	Latitude	Longitude
1.	Arnala Fort	19°27'57.42"N	72°43'56.11"E
2.	Vasai Fort	19°19'49.79"N	72°48'56.06"E
3.	Korlai Fort	18°32'11.06"N	72°57'51.88"E
4.	Janjira Fort	18°17'59.70"N	72°57'51.88"E
5.	Bankot Fort	17°58'24.71"N	73° 2'32.60"E
6.	Suvarnadurg	17°48'57.50"N	73° 5'3.93"E
7.	Jaigad	17°18'1.75"N	73°13'17.65"E
8.	Vijaydurg	16°33'40.23"N	73°19'58.70"E
9.	Dutch factory fort at Vengurla	15°51'33.52"N	73°37'51.54"E

The nine components of the nominated property of ‘Coastal Fortifications along the Konkan coast of Maharashtra’ are located across the west coast of present-day Maharashtra state. Historically, this stretch of coast was known as the Aparanta, and also referred to as Sapta Konkan in the ancient text of Skanda Purana. Among the various forts and outposts dotted along the entire Indian peninsular coast, the highest concentration of forts, around 131 forts, is along the western coast as against the 20 forts on the east coast. Along the western coast, the largest concentration of these forts is evidenced along the Konkan coast in Maharashtra which stretches up to 740 km approximately. The coastal fortifications along this stretch can be classified into a range of typologies based on the associated maritime trade, location, physiography, design, purpose, capacity, and strength. These coastal fortifications shape the military strategy, contemporary military and political affairs, and the cultural landscape of the region. These nine components are exemplary representations of the coastal fortifications typologies in addition to playing a crucial role in the shaping of the cultural and geopolitical landscape within the region between the 9th century to the 19th century CE.

The selected components of the coastal fortifications along the western Konkan coast of the Indian Ocean are a testimony to this historical development of global maritime trade and commerce. The geopolitical portrait of these forts along the Konkan coast reveals the fluctuating regional and international powers and, the changing spheres of control from the earlier dynasties of the Satvahanas, Rashtrakutas, Chalukyas, Yadavas, Shilaharas to the later period with the Bahamanis and, finally the Portuguese in the North, to the Siddhis, the Dutch, the British, and the Marathas to the southern coast. The presence of such varied and geographically adapted specimens of coastal fortifications and military architecture is credited to the existence of ideal geographical settings suitable to serve the purpose of defensive warfare. The Arabian Sea to the West, many perennial rivers and creeks leading to the sea from the Sahyadri mountain range to the East, and the mountain range in itself proved to be a natural defense system whose potential was further harnessed with design and technology. These medieval forts are strategically located on primary ancient ports along the Konkan coast such as Sopara, Agashi, Thana, Bombay, Roha, Revas, Mhasala, Mahad, Dabhol, Chiplun, and Ratnagiri.  ‘Periplus of the Erythrean Sea’, a first-hand account was written in the 1st Century BCE, probably by an unknown Greek sailor, describing the ports, the fortified cities, and the trade and commerce on the west coast of India during the Satavahana period. The Periplus mentions places like Bhrugukachha – Bharauch, Calliena – Kalyan, Shurparaka or Suppara – Sopara, Semylla – Cheul, Mandagora – Mandad, Palaepatamai – Palshet, Melizigara – Jaigad, Byzantium – Vijaydurga, Togarum – Devgad, Aurannobos – Malvan, Sesecrienae. The western coast of India became a center of attraction to the various trading communities due to its proximity to the sea and mountain passes which made inland, coastal, and overseas trade possible. India’s international trade and commerce thrived like never before during the Satavahana era in the 8th Century C.E. Trading rivalries among the seafaring European powers brought other coastal powers from the empires of the European subcontinent to India. The Portuguese, the Dutch Republic, England, France, and Denmark–Norway all established trading posts in India in the early 16th century CE.

As history has it, the need for defending the areas of control and regime emerged and thus this peninsular coast witnessed the emergence of military architecture and planning along the coast for the purpose of defense, military safeguard, surveillance, and as markers of the ruling powers. The strategic location of such ports and fortified areas is also indicative of the geographical potential of the coast and a strong relationship to the territory, and its physiography. It highlights knowledge of strategic design, planning, and defense mechanisms that were manifested in the long coastal network within the cultural landscape shaped by several historic events. This trans-cultural exchange of knowledge and technology across the Indian coast is evident. A general overview of the evolution of the maritime activities and the allied military architecture in the Indian Subcontinent indicates that though many settlements continued as fortified habitats and port towns, some emerged as special military bases devoid of the civilian population. The medieval period also provides evidence of fortified ports, fortresses, and sea forts, further classified into coastal and maritime forts.

The nine components identified as the coastal fortifications along the Konkan coast of Maharashtra have been selected from the extensive defense network and maritime economic activity along the coast through various periods. This is specific to the unique geography of the Konkan coast and demonstrates the potential of the coast which was harnessed over a period of time by various medieval powers. The forts have been chosen for their representative capacity and their specific contribution to the exceptional universal value proposed for the property. These key attributes include

• location on ancient and medieval trade routes
• strategic geographic context
• representation of a specific sea fort typology
• exceptional features of military architecture

representation of various ruling powers that contributed to the maritime cultural landscape of the Konkan coast through the medieval period in Indian history.

The nine components collectively represent a series of coastal fortifications and their military architecture of different categories of coastal fortifications in the Indian peninsula including coastal or riverine forts, island forts, and promontory or headland fort

The Directorate of Archaeology and Maharashtra has identified the following coastal fortifications from the State of Maharashtra based on significance within the maritime trade routes, strategic significance in shaping the geopolitics and cultural landscape and each component’s unique architectural value:

1. Arnala fort (19°27'57.42"N, 72°43'56.11"E)

The island fort of Arnala has a strategic location on the mouth of river Vaitarna and showcases distinct historical layering and has witnessed sieges from ruling dynasties. The island of Arnala first belonged to Sultan Mahmud Begda of Gujarat. The island was conquered by the Portuguese in 1530. In 1737, after nearly two hundred years of Portuguese rule, The Marathas won control of the fort. As the fort was of strategic importance to the Maratha navy in assaulting Portuguese interests, after winning the Battle of Vasai, Peshwa Baji Rao I directed an assault led by his brother Chimaji Appa in 1737. In 1781, the fort was captured by the British during the First Anglo-Maratha War. The Treaty of Salbai nominally returned the Arnala and Bassien forts to the Marathas. The Marathas controlled the fort until 1817, when it was returned to them through the Treaty of Salbai. The fort has an octagonal water tank, bastions, and rampart walls. The special feature of this fort is the presence of a Martello tower type defence structure that is a Portuguese intervention, located to the south of the island. It is a unique structural and military defense element found in just two forts along the entire coast of Konkan.

The fort is under the jurisdiction of the Archaeological Survey of India, Central Government, India vide notification no. 1227 of The Bombay Government Gazette of March 11, 1909.

2. Vasai Fort (19°19'49.79"N, 72°48'56.06"E)

The Vasai Fort, located in the historic Vasai town, was the Northern Capital of the Portuguese commanding powers along with being the main naval base and shipbuilding center. The fort has a high historical value from being a small outpost of the Gujarat Sultans to later being ceded and expanded by the Portuguese. The fort is located near Sopara, an important port along the ancient trade route connecting to the erstwhile Eritrean sea in the Early Historical period. From a typological point of view, the fort is classified as a coastal-island fort and is designed as a regular hexagon without outworks. Essentially designed as a Portuguese Fortress, the architectural elements of the citadel, churches, and fortifications have a chronology of construction and represent various architectural elements. The oldest part of the fortification referred to as the citadel, and its components are constructed in the period of Gujarat Sultanate in the fourth decade of the 16th century by Malik Tughan. These were then effectively reused by the Portuguese to establish control and territory over the cities, islands, and seas, following the Treaty of Vasai (1534). In the 18th Century, the fort was taken over by the Maratha Empire under the Peshwa Baji Rao’s brother Chimaji Appa. The fort was taken by the British in 1774 and returned to Maratha in 1783 under the Treaty of Salbai. In 1818, the British attacked and again took over the territory from the Marathas. The unique feature of this fort is the angular bastions, which are prominent European military architectural features, borrowed and adapted to the fort planning and design. Other structures within the fort complex are the citadels, water tanks, and churches which bear testimony to the Portuguese architectural and construction systems adapted to local materials. The fortification wall is 4.5 km long strong stone wall with 11 angular bastions; the citadel in the fort is well-equipped with water tanks, storehouses, and an armoury.

The fort is under the jurisdiction of the Archaeological Survey of India, Central Government, India vide notification no. 1227 of The Bombay Government Gazette of March 11, 1909.

3. Korlai Fort (18°32'11.06"N, 72°54'29.23"E)

The Korlai fort was built on the opposite bank of the Kundalika creek, on a promontory by Burhan Nizamshah. This was strategically located against the Revdanda fort or the ancient port of Chaul, on the other bank of the creek, which was a Portuguese fort. Korlai fort complimented Revdanda fort, both in Portuguese control, and effectively monitored the Kundalika creek. This fort has witnessed many attempts to be captured by the Marathas, and the EIC. The peculiarity of this fort is the design which in conforming the geomorphology of the promontory, giving it an elongated plan, which is a very rare design feature in forts typology.

The enclosing wall is 5' 3" high and has 305 battlements for guns. It is entered by eleven gates - four are outer and seven are inner. At the north point, within pistol-shot of the main battery is the water cistern named Santa Cruz – a major source of water. The area within the fort walls is divided into three enclosures by two lines of bastioned fortifications. The top of the hill is bastioned as well and is surrounded by a parapet. It has a large rainwater cistern with three mouths, each one foot wide, and the ruins of the magazine and a church. The church was built in 1630 for the use of the army and was functional until 1728. A gun foundry was established here.

The fort is under the jurisdiction of the Archaeological Survey of India, Central Government, India vide notification no. 6117 dated 20 August 1913 in section no. 8804A of The Bombay Government Gazette of March 11, 1909; No. 8804A in Bombay Government Gazette dated 4th December 1913.

4. Janjira Fort (18°17'59.70"N, 72°57'51.88"E)

The name ‘jazirah’ originally specifically referred to the island fortress constructed on the Danda- Rajapuri creek which was an important trading port at least as early as the 14th Century C.E.  An exceedingly strong structure, built on an island, off the coast of Murud with proximity to the Mhasala/ Mandad port. The island, as described by Pliny mentioning three trade routes between Egypt and India, lies on the second route between Suagros/ Fartaque point in Arabia (present-day Socotra) to Sigerus or Zizerus, the most frequented place on the pirate coast. The fort is a unique representation of an island fort, with massive fortifications, 19 bastions, and ancillary structures, and remains an undefeated fortress along the entire coast. Many attempts by the Marathas, the Portuguese, and the EIC against the Siddhis failed. The island fortress was under the control of Adil Shahi dynasty until the reign of Ibrahim II when Janjira fort was lost to the Siddis. The defense features, architecture, and planning have attributed the fort to remain undefeated and remained unconquered until it became part of Indian territory after independence from the British in 1947. The main gate of the fort faces east and is designed in a manner to not give away the sight of the main gate. At a certain period in time, the fort boasted to have housed 572 canons and currently boasts three gigantic cannons named Kalalbangdi, Chavri, and Landa Kasam which were said to be feared for their shooting range. Elements such as the palace of the Siddhis, and two freshwater tanks inside the fort are unique features and represent the ingenuity of construction and military planning to sustain the population inside the fort. The presence of a chor darwaza (an escape route) demonstrated the strategic planning of defense within the island fortress.

The fort is under the jurisdiction of the Archaeological Survey of India, Central Government, India vide notification Sec I, Sr. no. 4 of The Gazette of India Extraordinary, 1954.

5. Bankot Fort (17°58'24.71"N, 73° 2'32.60"E)

Bankot fort, also known as Himmatgarh, was primarily built for trade and surveillance along the Savitri River near Mahad, which was an important port on the ancient trade route. The harbor of Bankot was well known from ancient times, as Pliny calls it by the name Mandagiri. This fort is a secondary coastal fortification constructed at a higher altitude on a small hill overlooking the river. The unique and most significant attribute of this fort is the access to unobstructed views of the river and commercials and defense activities consequently. Owing to this geographically prominent location, the fort has witnessed multiple attempts of siege by various powers. The fort changed hands from Mohammed Adil Shah of Bijapur, the Portuguese, the Marathas, the Peshwas, and ultimately the EIC.

The fort is under the jurisdiction of the Directorate of Archaeology and Maharashtra, Government of Maharashtra, India vide notification No. 2013/C.R.23/Sanka-3 dated 12 March 2015.

6. Suvarnadurg (17°48'57.50"N, 73° 5'3.93"E)

Presumably built by the rulers of Bijapur in the 16th century CE, Suvarnadurg is another of Chatrapati Shivaji Maharaj’s maritime forts which later served as a naval station of the Angres. This is an important coastal-island fortification constructed near the port of Harnai with three secondary promontory fort networks, namely, Gova/ Bhuikot fort, Fatehgarh, and Kanakdurg. The fort is constructed on a low irregular island, about a quarter of a mile from the shore, surrounded by a very high wall and one of the most striking of the Ratnagiri coast forts. It is located near Harnai port which is an ancient port and hence building a fort at that location to serve the purpose of trade with military satisfaction. It is so well planned with three subsidiary forts on land supporting the island fort, making clear the importance of the main fort. Within the fort are several reservoirs and a small step well with water enough for a large garrison.

The fort is under the jurisdiction of the Archaeological Survey of India, Central Government, India vide notification no. 4343 date 17 august 1909; General Department notification no. 2907 dated 21st June 1910.

7. Jaigad (17°18'1.75"N, 73°13'17.65"E)

The Jaigad Fort was erected along the Shastri River creek. This coastal fortification is located on the north of the village Jaigad and spread over a 12-acre expanse and has a commanding view of the bay, The fort has been designed with two areas Balekilla (the upper fort) and Parkot (the security wall). The security moat has been constructed using laterite stone and trenches have been carved beside the wall. Jaigad fort is said to have been built by Bijapur Kings in the 16th Century. Later it passed into the hands of Naiks of Sangameshwar. He had 7-8 villages and 600 troops under his command. He defeated the combined forces of Bijapur and the Portuguese in 1583 and 1585. In 1713 Jaigad was one of the ten forts which were ceded by Balaji Vishwanath Peshwa to Kanhoji Angre. In June 1818 this fort was captured by the British without any struggle.

The fort is under the jurisdiction of the Archaeological Survey of India, Central Government, India vide notification no. 4343 date 17 august 1909; General Department notification no. 2907 dated 21st June 1910.

8. Vijaydurg (16°33'40.23"N, 73°19'58.70"E)

Vijaydurg was constructed during the regime of Raja Bhoja II of the Shilahar dynasty (construction period 1193-1205) and restructured by Chhatrapati Shivaji. n 1653, Shivaji captured this fort from Adil Shah of Bijapur and renamed it ‘Vijay Durg’. This fort was the chief naval fort of the Angres, and being strong and heavily fortified, saw failed attempts of seizing by the Portuguese, the Dutch, and the EIC. It successfully withstood assaults in 1717, 1721, 1724, and 1749 CE. However, it fell to the combined operations of the Peshwa and the EIC. Given to the Peshwa in Lieu of Bankot, it remained in Maratha’s hands till the end. The history of the Vijaydurg fort under the Angres has been well documented.

In 1698, Kanhoji made Vijaydurg the capital of his territory along the coast. Kanhoji Angre died on 4 July 1729 and the Angres control of the fort ended in 1756, after the Peshwa-British Alliance defeated the Angres. In 1818 Vijaydurg was completely in the hand of the British Empire.

Vijaydurg Fort was called the ‘Eastern Gibraltar’, as it was virtually impregnable. Its locational advantages include the 40 km long Waghotan/ Kharepatan creek, as it is constructed on the mouth of the creek. Large vessels cannot enter the shallow water of this creek. It is surrounded by water on all four sides but connected to the land through a narrow road. Also, Maratha warships could be anchored in this creek and yet remain invisible from the sea.

The strongest fortification, having a triple line of fortifications, two can be seen distinctly and in a good condition.  There are 27 bastions that were once mounted with cannons and guns.

The fort is under the jurisdiction of the Archaeological Survey of India, Central Government, India vide notification no. 4343 date 17 august 1909; General Department notification no. 2907 dated 21st June 1910.

9. Dutch Factory Fort at Vengurla (15°51'33.52"N, 73°37'51.54"E)

The fortified factory at Vengurla is a good specimen of an inland fort, popularly known as the Dutch Factory having colonial architecture design. In the 17th century CE travel accounts of the Dutch, French, English, and Italian officials and travelers, the town is referred to as Fingarle, Mingrela, and Wingurla, an important port and trading center. Many powers and dynasties attempted to supersede and take control owing to its strategic location. The factory is a perfect example of power dynamics and geo-politics which played a role in shaping the sea trade and economics of the coast. In the 16th Century CE, Vengurla was under the rule of the Adil Shahi dynasty of Bijapur. Muhammad Adil Shah granted access to the Dutch to Vengurla in an attempt to eject the Portuguese from Goa, this arrangement benefitted both powers. The factory is a result of the expansion process of the expanding trade of the Dutch East India Company VOC by establishing networks of bases that ranged from simple offices and warehouses to massive commercial bulwarks. By 1663-64, Vengurla became part of the newly created Maratha kingdom. Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj had cordial relations with the Dutch, which was beneficial for the town’s progress. The conflicts between the Bijapur Sultante, the Mughals, and the Marathas rose after the death of Muhammad Adil Shah in 1663 and eventually lead to the decline of the strategic significance of the factory after the Dutch moved their prime base to Cochin. The factory also witnessed the results of the unsuccessful rebellion of Mughal Prince Muhamad Akbar against his father Emperor Aurangzeb when he sought refuge in Maharashtra under Chhatrapati Sambhaji. Akbar lived in the Dutch factory in 1683 CE and, from here, escaped to Persia, never to return. Later power changed hands after that and the port town passed to the Sawants of Wadi, local chieftains in the south Konkan region. In 1766 CE, a treaty signed between the Sawantwadi kingdom and the British East India Company saw Vengurla fort being handed over to the British for 13 years with an extension, till 2 lakh rupees was paid by the Sawants. But the fort was forcefully taken back by Khem Sawant III in 1780 CE. In 1812, Phond Sawant III was forced to cede the port of Vengurla back to the British, including all his warships.

The main structure of the factory is constructed along a rectangular fortification wall having four bastions to be guarded with guns and cannons. The structures inside are said to be a castle and storehouses. The main lodge was an attractive, T-shaped building with cross vaults and beautiful stucco. The structure is adapted to the local climate and materials, primarily constructed in local laterite stone. In 1862 it was in good order, garrisoned by a detachment, and with five small guns. Water was abundant, and it was used by the military department as an arsenal and storehouse.

The building is under the jurisdiction of the Directorate of Archaeology and Maharashtra, Government of Maharashtra, India vide notification no. AMN/1070-Q-18062 dated 1 February 1972.

Justification of Outstanding Universal Value

This serial property of nine forts along the Konkan Coast is testimony to the maritime tradition of the Indian Ocean and the centers of power created by several dynasties and colonial powers that manifested in harbors, ports, and port towns along a network of trade routes. The role that maritime trade in the Indian Ocean, historically known as the Eritrean sea, is enormous in terms of developing shipping technologically, seafaring techniques, and knowledge which connected a long coast along many present-day countries, enabling cultural exchange, technological innovations, economic produce as well as generating local and foreign territories along the coast.

The classification of military architecture as described in ancient Indian texts of Arthashashtra and Shilpashashtra gives a description of 19 types of forts, including antardwip (island forts). The Konkan coast presents a unique ensemble of different types of coastal fortification as per their physiography and purpose Beyond the varied range of coastal fortification typologies including island forts, coastal forts, promontory or headland forts, these selected components are also representative of the various coastal ruling powers in the course of medieval Indian history along with showcasing some unique military defense features.

Criterion (ii): The western coast of India, specifically the present-day state of Maharashtra presents the maximum concentration of forts, fortresses, ports, harbors, port towns, and trade networks to the hinterlands. This highest concentration of defense structures is to be attributed to the extremely effective physiography of the coast to support maritime trade and economic activities. The historical records demonstrate the trade within the Eritrean sea and the exchange of goods leading to an economic and cultural exchange consequently.

The coastal fortifications identified for inscription are located on the ancient and medieval trade routes and maritime commerce routes of the Konkan coast of Maharashtra. They represent the ancient and medieval maritime trade routes, dynamics between various colonizers and territories, and the emergent need for military architecture as well as defense strategies.

The forts of Janjira and Suvarnadurg are exemplary island forts of the Siddis and the Marathas respectively, constructed near important ports, which make them unique in the methods of construction, integration of the natural features for defense, and incorporation of defense techniques such as secret escape passages, bastions fixed with canons and loopholes as well as a series of the fortified network of smaller outposts along the coast. In the case of the fort of Bankot and Jaigad, the strategic location of the high altitude and the access to an unobstructed view of the Savitri and Jaigad rivers respectively signifies the strategic position for surveillance and defense activities. Vijadurg fort is a unique example of Maratha fortification with triple fortified walls constructed on a promontory; this feature granted access to the seas and eventually control of the maritime trade and commercial activities. Korlai, a Portuguese fort represents an exceptional design element of an elongated fort typology constructed atop a promontory overlooking the Kundalika river and along the ancient port of Chaul. In the case of Vasai fort, which are constructed on islands acting as natural defense features and showcases western elements of military architecture such as angular bastions and bastioned towers. The Dutch factory at Vengurla is representative of the interaction and developments along the trade routes and power dynamics and geo-politics owing to its strategic location. Many of the coastal fortifications were self-sustained in terms of settlement and supporting an army and local population. This was the ingenuity at a display where every fort had a supply of fresh water constructed within the fortification, which also is a remarkable feature of the forts and technology of design and planning.

The attributes and elements of architecture stated above are indicative of the interaction of multiple dynasties, trade and commerce, and the evolution of military technology. Many of the forts also acted as naval bases and ship-building locations highlighting their contribution to the maritime coastal landscape.

Criterion (iv): The western Konkan coast of India was exploited and harnessed more for maritime activities owing to the geography and the climatic conditions, in comparison to the east coast. The west coast witnessed extensive trade and maritime activities and presents a large concentration of ports, harbors, port towns, land and sea trade routes, and military architecture, which was prevalent in the ancient as well as medieval periods. It is axiomatic that trade and commerce lead to the need for guarding territories against conflict and eventually manifestations of defense structures are observed along the coast. The strategic location of every fort and allied port or port town is in conformation to geography and physiographical features such as the coast, rocky outcrops, promontories, islands, and coastal hills and is in conjunction with the requirements of each location. The listed forts represent various typologies and construction of forts with distinct geomorphological features. The typology contains coastal fort, island fort, promontory fort, riverine fort, and headland fort.

The listed forts represent various typologies and construction of forts with distinct geomorphological features. The typology contains coastal, island, promontory, or headland forts based on geographical classification. The classification as per the use and purpose of defense is also crucial to understanding and mapping the military landscape which represents primary and secondary forts, outposts, naval bases, and ship-building bases which granted varying levels of significance and operations along the coast.

The coastal fortifications in the list present unique architectural features and chronological development as many of the forts were ceded by dynasties of a period of time. These layered architectural elements embody the high significance of forts due to the prominent location and the emerging conflicts, battles, and treaties that are recorded and shape the history of the coast. Amongst unique architectural features are the sweet water tanks constructed within the island fortress of Janjira, the triple fortification of Vijaydurg which made it a very strong fort, and the angular bastions of Vasai fort which are borrowed elements of colonial powers, here the Portuguese, adapted to the local context and materials, presence of monumental watch towers at the edge of islands and creeks to name a few. The use of material and design blends well within the landscape due to the use of local materials as well as the integration of the natural terrain within the design and planning of the forts, making it an integral part of the landscape and its surroundings.

Criterion (vi): Collectively, these nine components represent the maritime history and trade routes of the Indian Ocean linking with western, African, and Arabian coastlines. They belong to the period of world exploration and the great commercial maritime routes thus shaping not only the history of the Indian subcontinent but also recording transoceanic encounters and the beginnings of western, African, and Arabic Diaspora in the region.

Statements of authenticity and/or integrity

Authenticity

The archaeological and architectural material remains of these fortifications and forts spanning across the west coast of Maharashtra, the Konkan coast, are largely authentic and contain original design, the technology of construction, motifs, and details and materials of the respective periods as seen in the layering of the forts. The coastal fortifications along the Konkan coast, all dating from different periods as well as layers of construction are well preserved to a great extent. With respect to the protection and conservation of the fortifications, elements of architecture such as walls, bastions, gates, a few internal structures such as palaces, temples and mosques, granaries and storage units, and other structures of varying importance are observed in each of the forts. The important feature of the sweet water tanks in each fort is still in a good condition and observed to be a good catchment even after so many years of construction and functioning well. The coastal fortifications constructed on islands in the sea have witnessed the impact of natural forces such as erosion due to seawater, and heavy rains and winds leading to minor disintegration of stone.

Integrity

The forts are signs of natural wear and tear due to external elements of winds and erosion due to saline waters. However, the structures are largely intact without major damage or collapse and can be attributed to the construction techniques of the builders and innovation in technology to cater to the longevity of the fort and its structures. Also, owing to the protection by national and State governments as well as the implementation of conservation and management measures for upkeep and regular maintenance and repair of the forts. Though conservation works are carried out in these forts, utmost care is taken to use similar materials and techniques and preserve the authenticity of the architecture, without introducing foreign elements. Few forts and premises have been added with tourist infrastructure, but it is worth mentioning that it is highly detailed to match the architectural and material typologies in each of the forts, wherever applicable.

Comparison with other similar properties

Based on the attributes of the coastal fortifications and the maritime cultural landscape of the Konkan coast of Maharashtra, the outstanding universal significance can be compared with the following examples from the World Heritage list.

International properties:

Fortress of Suomenlinna

Country: Finland
Criteria iv

The fortress is built on a group of islands located at the entrance of Helsinki's harbor and is an interesting example of European military architecture of the 18th Century CE. The landscape and the architecture of the fortress have been shaped by several historic events. It has served to defend three different sovereign states over the years: the Kingdom of Sweden, the Russian Empire, and most recently the Republic of Finland. The fortress is built over six islands and harnesses the advantage of the physiography, was built using local rock and fortified with a system of bastions over varied terrain. It bears testimony to various periods of control and construction over the original forts.

Port, Fortresses, and Group of Monuments, Cartagena

Country: Colombia
Criteria iv, vi

Cartagena was for several centuries a focal point of confrontation among the principal European powers vying for control of the “New World.” Defensive fortifications were built by the Spanish in 1586 and were strengthened and extended to their current dimensions in the 18th century, taking full advantage of the natural defenses offered by the numerous bayside channels and passes. It is an example of military architecture of the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries. It was an essential link in the route of the West Indies. The property fits within the general theme of world exploration and the great commercial maritime routes.

Old Havana and its Fortification System

Country: Cuba
Criteria iv, v

Havana was founded in 1519 by the Spanish. By the 17th century, and was one of the Caribbean's main centers for ship-building. It presents a complex system of fortifications that protected Havana, its port, and its dockyard. historic fortunes of Havana were a product of the exceptional function of its bay as an obligatory stop on the maritime route to the New World, which consequently necessitated its military protection.

Fortifications of Vauban
Country: France
Criteria i, ii, iv

Fortifications of Vauban consist of 12 groups of fortified buildings and sites along the western, northern, and eastern borders of France. They represent the finest examples of the work of Sébastien Le Prestre de Vauban. The serial property includes towns built from scratch by Vauban, citadels, urban bastion walls, and bastion towers. There are also mountain forts, sea forts, a mountain battery, and two mountain communication structures. This property is inscribed as bearing witness to the peak of classic fortifications, typical of western military architecture.

Fortifications on the Caribbean Side of Panama: Portobelo-San Lorenzo
Country: Panama
Criteria i, iv

Magnificent examples of 17th- and 18th-century military architecture, these Panamanian forts on the Caribbean coast form part of the defense system built by the Spanish Crown to protect transatlantic trade. The Fortifications on the Caribbean Side of Panama: Portobelo-San Lorenzo, a group of late 16th, 17th and 18th-century fortifications, are among the most characteristic adaptations of Spanish military architecture to tropical climate and landscape features, and represent the structural and technological development of military structures in the Caribbean.

Forts and Castles, Volta, Greater Accra, Central and Western Regions

Country: Ghana
Criteria: vi

These fortified trading posts, founded between 1482 and 1786, and spanning a distance of approximately 500 km along the coast of Ghana between Keta in the east and Beyin in the west, were links in the trading routes established by the Portuguese in many areas of the world during their era of great maritime exploration. The castles and forts were built and occupied at different times by traders from Portugal, Spain, Denmark, Sweden, Holland, Germany, and Britain. They served the gold trade of European chartered companies. Latterly they played a significant part in the developing slave trade, and therefore in the history of the Americas, and, subsequently, in the 19th century, in the suppression of that trade. The property consists of three Castles, 15 Forts, four Forts partially in ruins, four ruins with visible structures, and two sites with traces of former fortifications.

Venetian Works of Defence between the 16th and 17th Centuries: Stato da Terra – Western Stato da Mar

Country: Croatia, Italy, Montenegro
Criteria: iii, iv

This property consists of 6 components of defense works in Italy, Croatia, and Montenegro, spanning more than 1,000 km between the Lombard region of Italy and the eastern Adriatic Coast. Together, they represent the defensive works of the Serenissima between the 16th and 17th centuries, the most significant period of the long history of the Venetian Republic; and demonstrate the designs, adaptations, and operations of alla moderna defenses, which were to feature throughout Europe.

National and regional level sites:

• Mughal Forts inscribed on the WH List (Red Fort, Agra Fort)
• Hill Forts of Rajasthan inscribed on the WH List
• Deccan Forts of Ahmadnagar, Gulbarga, Bidar, Bijapur and Golconda on the Tentative list
• Other protected forts in Maharashtra